Difference between revisions of "Nominal Morphology"
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− | == |
+ | ==Noun Classes== |
+ | ===Overview=== |
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+ | Most nouns can occur in two numbers, singular and plural. There are eight singular noun classes and six plural noun classes. Noun classes are lexically determined: while generalizations can be made about the semantic content of certain noun classes, other noun classes have no predictable semantic basis. In most cases, noun classes are named after the concordant marking on corresponding determiners. |
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+ | {| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;" |
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− | Nouns can be divided into patterns (classes/genders?). |
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+ | |-valign=top |
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+ | ! Singular classes !! Noun prefix !! Adj prefix !! Det. prefix !! Semantic generalization |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''ox'' || '''o-'''<nowiki>*</nowiki> || '''o-''' || '''ox-''' || humans || |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''ol'' || '''o-''' || '''o-''' || '''ol-''' || |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''l'' || '''Ø-''' || '''Ø-''' || '''l-''' || |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''f'' || '''Ø-''' || '''fa-'''<nowiki>**</nowiki> || '''f-''' || |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''n'' || '''Ø-'''<nowiki>**</nowiki> || '''Ø-'''<nowiki>**</nowiki> || '''n-''' || |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''al'' || '''a-''' || '''Ø-'''<nowiki>*</nowiki> || '''l-''' || |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''ong'' || '''o-'''<nowiki>**</nowiki> || '''o-'''<nowiki>**</nowiki> || '''ong-''' || diminutives |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''gal'' || '''ga-'''<nowiki>**</nowiki> <br> '''gi-'''<nowiki>**</nowiki> || '''a-'''<nowiki>*</nowiki> || '''al-''' || augmentatives |
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+ | |- |
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+ | ! Plural classes |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''w'' || '''Ø-''' || '''Ø-''' || '''w-''' || humans |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''ax'' || '''xa-'''<nowiki>*</nowiki> || '''xa-'''<nowiki>*</nowiki> || '''ax-''' || |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''ak'' || '''a-'''<nowiki>*</nowiki> || '''a-'''<nowiki>*</nowiki> || '''ak-''' || |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''k'' || '''Ø-'''<nowiki>*</nowiki> || '''Ø-'''<nowiki>*</nowiki> || '''k-''' || |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''fn'' || '''fo-'''<nowiki>**</nowiki> || '''fo-'''<nowiki>**</nowiki> || '''n-''' || diminutives |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | ''gak'' || '''ga-'''<nowiki>**</nowiki> || '''a-'''<nowiki>**</nowiki> || '''ak-''' || augmentatives |
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+ | |} |
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+ | :<nowiki>*</nowiki>The initial consonant of the stem undergoes [[Phonological Alternations#Standard nominal mutation|standard nominal mutation]], if able. |
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+ | :<nowiki>**</nowiki>The initial consonant of the stem undergoes [[Phonological Alternations#Prenasalized nominal mutation|prenasalized nominal mutation]], if able. |
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+ | |||
+ | Most singular noun classes correspond to exactly one plural noun class, with the exception of the ''al'' class. However, the corresponding plural form for any given ''al'' class noun is predictable. All al/k nouns have an initial prenasalized consonant; all al/ak nouns do not. The complete table of noun class pairs is shown in the following table. |
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− | {| class="wikitable |
+ | {| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;" |
+ | |+ Noun class pair examples |
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− | ! Gloss !! Noun (sg.) !! Sg. article !! Noun (pl.) !! Pl. article !! generalizations for membership |
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+ | ! Class !! Example !! Det. !! English !! Plural !! Det. !! Semantic generalization |
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|- |
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+ | | '''ox/w''' || ''o-'''''t'''ew || ''ox''e || woman || ''Ø-'''''r'''ew || ''w''e || humans |
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− | | Woman |
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− | | '''o-'''tɛʋ || '''oχɛ''' || '''0-r'''ɛʋ || '''ʋɛ''' || humans only |
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|- |
|- |
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+ | | '''ol/ax''' || ''o-'''''f'''iiɗ || ''ol''e || butterfly || ''xa-'''''p'''iiɗ || ''ax''e |
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− | | Gorilla |
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− | | '''a-'''kooŋg || '''alɛ''' || '''a-'''kooŋg || '''akɛ''' |
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|- |
|- |
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+ | | '''l/ak''' || ''Ø-'''''x'''omb || ''l''e || turtle || ''a-'''''q'''omb || ''ak''e |
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− | | Elephant |
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− | | '''0-f'''aɲiik || '''fɛ''' || '''a-p'''aɲiik || '''akɛ''' |
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|- |
|- |
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+ | | '''f/k''' || ''Ø-'''''x'''aarit || ''f''e || friend || ''Ø-'''''q'''aarit || ''k''e |
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− | | Elephant |
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− | | || || '''0-p'''aɲiik || '''kɛ''' |
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|- |
|- |
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+ | | '''n/k''' || ''Ø-'''''nq'''oox || ''n''e || bull || ''Ø-'''''q'''oox || ''k''e |
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− | | Lake |
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− | | '''a-mb'''ɛɛl || '''alɛ''' || '''0-p'''ɛɛl || '''kɛ''' |
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|- |
|- |
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+ | | '''al/k''' || ''a-'''''mb'''eel || ''al''e || lake || ''Ø-'''''p'''eel || ''k''e |
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− | | Bull |
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− | | '''0-ɴɢ'''ooχ || '''nɛ''' || '''0-q'''ooχ || '''kɛ''' |
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|- |
|- |
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+ | | '''al/ak''' || ''a-'''''k'''oong || ''al''e || monkey || ''a-'''''k'''oong || ''ak''e |
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− | | Turtle |
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− | | '''0-'''xomb || '''lɛ''' || '''a-q'''omb || '''akɛ''' |
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|- |
|- |
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+ | | '''ong/fn''' || ''o-'''''nd'''ew || ''ong''e || woman [DIM] || ''fo-'''''nd'''ew || ''n''e || diminutives |
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− | | Butterfly |
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− | | '''o-'''fiiɗ || '''olɛ''' || '''xa-p'''iiɗ || '''axɛ''' |
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|- |
|- |
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+ | | '''gal/gak''' || ''ga-'''''nd'''ew <br> ''gi-'''''nd'''ew || ''al''e || woman [AUG] || ''ga-'''''nd'''ew || ''ak''e || augmentatives |
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− | | Cat |
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− | | '''0-'''muus || '''nɛ''' || '''0-'''muus || '''kɛ''' |
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|- |
|- |
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+ | |} |
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− | | Leg |
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+ | |||
− | | '''o-'''ɟaf || '''olɛ''' || '''a-c'''af || '''akɛ''' |
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+ | ====Irregular nouns==== |
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+ | |||
+ | A handful of nouns have singular-plural noun class pairs that do not fall into this regular paradigm. |
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+ | |||
+ | {| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;" |
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+ | |-valign=top |
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+ | ! Gloss !! Singular noun !! Singular class !! Plural noun !! Plural class |
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|- |
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+ | | leg || ojaf || ''ol'' || acaf || ''ak'' |
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− | | Woman (AUG) |
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− | | '''ga-nd'''ɛʋ || '''alɛ''' || '''ga-nd'''ɛʋ || '''akɛ''' || entirely and only augmentative-marked |
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|- |
|- |
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+ | | pants || ombap || ''ol'' || pap || ''k'' |
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− | | Woman (DIM) |
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− | | '''o-nd'''ɛʋ || '''oŋgɛ''' || '''fo-nd'''ɛʋ || '''akɛ/nɛ''' || entirely and only diminutive-marked |
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|- |
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+ | | elephant || fañiik || ''f'' <br> ''l'' || pañiik <br> apañiik || ''k'' <br> ''ak'' |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | muscle || doole || ''f'' || toole <br> atoole || ''k'' <br> ''ak'' |
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|} |
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+ | There are two possible plural forms associated with the singular nouns ''fañiik'' 'elephant' and ''doole'' 'muscle'. |
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− | Negation of a noun is indicated by the free morphology word [ɟɛgɛ]. It's unclear if this element can function verbally or if it can only negate nouns. |
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+ | ===Semantic Generalizations=== |
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− | ===Diminutives=== |
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+ | ====Human Classes (''ox/w'')==== |
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− | {| class="wikitable sortable" |
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+ | |||
+ | The ''ox/w'' noun classes consist entirely of nouns denoting humans. Derived nouns that fall into these classes are perforce interpeted as being human. |
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+ | |||
+ | :''moxoñ'' 'crumble' > ''omoomoxoñ'' 'someone who crumbles things' (not 'something that crumbles') |
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+ | |||
+ | With very few exceptions, all lexical nouns denoting humans fall into these noun classes. |
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+ | |||
+ | {| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;" |
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+ | |-valign=top |
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+ | ! Gloss !! Singular noun !! Noun class |
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+ | | wrestler || ''mbir'' || ''n/k'' |
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− | ! Gloss !! Singular Noun !! Diminutive of SN !! Plural Noun !! Diminutive of PN !! Notes |
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+ | | friend || ''xaarit'' || ''f/k'' || |
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− | | drum || famb || ombamb oŋga || apamb || || distal "article" oŋga || |
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+ | | mother || ''yaay'' <br> ''ya<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' || ''n/k'' || |
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− | | field || qool || oɴɢool oŋga || || || distal "article" oŋga || |
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+ | | father || ''fap'' || ''f/k'' || |
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− | | sugar || suukar || ɲɟuukar || suukar || || did not elicit dim. of pl. || |
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− | | |
+ | |- |
+ | | false lion || ''simb'' || ''f/k'' || |
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|} |
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+ | ====Augmentative and Diminutive Classes (''gal/gak'' and ''ong/fn'')==== |
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− | ===Augmentatives=== |
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+ | |||
− | {| class="wikitable sortable" |
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+ | Four noun classes are exclusively devoted to productive noun-noun derivational processes, resulting in nouns with an augmentative or diminutive sense. Any noun may be augmented or diminutized with the addition of the appropriate class prefix to its original stem. All stems in these classes undergo [[Phonological Alternations#Prenasalized nominal mutation|prenasalized nominal mutation]]. |
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+ | |||
+ | {| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;" |
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+ | |+Augmentative/Diminutive paradigm for 'woman' |
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|- |
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− | ! Gloss !! Singular Noun !! |
+ | ! Gloss !! Singular Noun !! Determiner !! Plural Noun !! Determiner |
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− | | |
+ | | woman || o-'''t'''ew || '''ox'''e || Ø-'''r'''ew || '''w'''e |
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+ | | woman <small>(AUG)</small> || a-'''nd'''ew <br> ga-'''nd'''ew <br> gi-'''nd'''ew || '''al'''e || a-'''nd'''ew <br> ga-'''nd'''ew <br> gi-'''nd'''ew || '''ak'''e || |
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+ | |- |
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+ | | woman <small>(DIM)</small> || o-'''nd'''ew || '''ong'''e || fo-'''nd'''ew || '''n'''e || |
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|} |
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+ | |||
+ | The augmentative noun classes have three nominal prefixes that may be used. The prefixes '''a-''' and '''ga-''' are in free variation; '''gi-''' seems to suggest pejorative largeness and thus seems to be used less than the others in our elicitation contexts. All occur with the same concordant marking on adjectives and determiners. |
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+ | |||
+ | Some nouns are lexically permanently diminutive, i.e. they are permanently part of the noun class only available to diminutives and cannot be back-derived to an earlier form: |
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+ | |||
+ | :ondeb onge |
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+ | :<nowiki>*</nowiki>oteb oxe |
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+ | :'the boy' |
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+ | |||
+ | ===Other things that agree with noun class=== |
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+ | |||
+ | For the WH-pronouns "how many/much" and "which," see [[Questions#WH Questions|Questions]]. |
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+ | |||
+ | ==Other nominal morphology== |
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===Word/clitic status of "articles"=== |
===Word/clitic status of "articles"=== |
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The "articles" discussed above are apparently not suffixal, as one might assume, making them either independent (and mobile) words or clitics (which attach to the right edge of a DP?). |
The "articles" discussed above are apparently not suffixal, as one might assume, making them either independent (and mobile) words or clitics (which attach to the right edge of a DP?). |
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− | For instance, note that the agreement for the article in |
+ | For instance, note that the agreement for the article in xaˈƥek ˈsuuˌkar aˌhe 'the pieces of sugar (sugarcubes)' matches that of xaˈƥek aˌxe 'the pieces', rather than the agreement seen in ˈsuuˌkar fe 'the sugar': the article agrees with xaˈƥek despite not being immediately adjacent to it. |
+ | |||
+ | More convincing evidence comes from the fact that one or more adjectives can intervene between the article and the noun. (Elaborate upon this.) |
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− | It is |
+ | It is unclear at this point precisely what semantic function they serve. Some specifying and/or deictic function seems to be involved. |
Latest revision as of 12:47, 11 September 2013
Noun Classes
Overview
Most nouns can occur in two numbers, singular and plural. There are eight singular noun classes and six plural noun classes. Noun classes are lexically determined: while generalizations can be made about the semantic content of certain noun classes, other noun classes have no predictable semantic basis. In most cases, noun classes are named after the concordant marking on corresponding determiners.
Singular classes | Noun prefix | Adj prefix | Det. prefix | Semantic generalization | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ox | o-* | o- | ox- | humans | |
ol | o- | o- | ol- | ||
l | Ø- | Ø- | l- | ||
f | Ø- | fa-** | f- | ||
n | Ø-** | Ø-** | n- | ||
al | a- | Ø-* | l- | ||
ong | o-** | o-** | ong- | diminutives | |
gal | ga-** gi-** |
a-* | al- | augmentatives | |
Plural classes | |||||
w | Ø- | Ø- | w- | humans | |
ax | xa-* | xa-* | ax- | ||
ak | a-* | a-* | ak- | ||
k | Ø-* | Ø-* | k- | ||
fn | fo-** | fo-** | n- | diminutives | |
gak | ga-** | a-** | ak- | augmentatives |
- *The initial consonant of the stem undergoes standard nominal mutation, if able.
- **The initial consonant of the stem undergoes prenasalized nominal mutation, if able.
Most singular noun classes correspond to exactly one plural noun class, with the exception of the al class. However, the corresponding plural form for any given al class noun is predictable. All al/k nouns have an initial prenasalized consonant; all al/ak nouns do not. The complete table of noun class pairs is shown in the following table.
Class | Example | Det. | English | Plural | Det. | Semantic generalization |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ox/w | o-tew | oxe | woman | Ø-rew | we | humans |
ol/ax | o-fiiɗ | ole | butterfly | xa-piiɗ | axe | |
l/ak | Ø-xomb | le | turtle | a-qomb | ake | |
f/k | Ø-xaarit | fe | friend | Ø-qaarit | ke | |
n/k | Ø-nqoox | ne | bull | Ø-qoox | ke | |
al/k | a-mbeel | ale | lake | Ø-peel | ke | |
al/ak | a-koong | ale | monkey | a-koong | ake | |
ong/fn | o-ndew | onge | woman [DIM] | fo-ndew | ne | diminutives |
gal/gak | ga-ndew gi-ndew |
ale | woman [AUG] | ga-ndew | ake | augmentatives |
Irregular nouns
A handful of nouns have singular-plural noun class pairs that do not fall into this regular paradigm.
Gloss | Singular noun | Singular class | Plural noun | Plural class |
---|---|---|---|---|
leg | ojaf | ol | acaf | ak |
pants | ombap | ol | pap | k |
elephant | fañiik | f l |
pañiik apañiik |
k ak |
muscle | doole | f | toole atoole |
k ak |
There are two possible plural forms associated with the singular nouns fañiik 'elephant' and doole 'muscle'.
Semantic Generalizations
Human Classes (ox/w)
The ox/w noun classes consist entirely of nouns denoting humans. Derived nouns that fall into these classes are perforce interpeted as being human.
- moxoñ 'crumble' > omoomoxoñ 'someone who crumbles things' (not 'something that crumbles')
With very few exceptions, all lexical nouns denoting humans fall into these noun classes.
Gloss | Singular noun | Noun class | |
---|---|---|---|
wrestler | mbir | n/k | |
friend | xaarit | f/k | |
mother | yaay ya' |
n/k | |
father | fap | f/k | |
false lion | simb | f/k |
Augmentative and Diminutive Classes (gal/gak and ong/fn)
Four noun classes are exclusively devoted to productive noun-noun derivational processes, resulting in nouns with an augmentative or diminutive sense. Any noun may be augmented or diminutized with the addition of the appropriate class prefix to its original stem. All stems in these classes undergo prenasalized nominal mutation.
Gloss | Singular Noun | Determiner | Plural Noun | Determiner | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
woman | o-tew | oxe | Ø-rew | we | |
woman (AUG) | a-ndew ga-ndew gi-ndew |
ale | a-ndew ga-ndew gi-ndew |
ake | |
woman (DIM) | o-ndew | onge | fo-ndew | ne |
The augmentative noun classes have three nominal prefixes that may be used. The prefixes a- and ga- are in free variation; gi- seems to suggest pejorative largeness and thus seems to be used less than the others in our elicitation contexts. All occur with the same concordant marking on adjectives and determiners.
Some nouns are lexically permanently diminutive, i.e. they are permanently part of the noun class only available to diminutives and cannot be back-derived to an earlier form:
- ondeb onge
- *oteb oxe
- 'the boy'
Other things that agree with noun class
For the WH-pronouns "how many/much" and "which," see Questions.
Other nominal morphology
Word/clitic status of "articles"
The "articles" discussed above are apparently not suffixal, as one might assume, making them either independent (and mobile) words or clitics (which attach to the right edge of a DP?).
For instance, note that the agreement for the article in xaˈƥek ˈsuuˌkar aˌhe 'the pieces of sugar (sugarcubes)' matches that of xaˈƥek aˌxe 'the pieces', rather than the agreement seen in ˈsuuˌkar fe 'the sugar': the article agrees with xaˈƥek despite not being immediately adjacent to it.
More convincing evidence comes from the fact that one or more adjectives can intervene between the article and the noun. (Elaborate upon this.)
It is unclear at this point precisely what semantic function they serve. Some specifying and/or deictic function seems to be involved.