Difference between revisions of "Phonological Alternations"

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Phonological alternations in Sereer are differently characterized depending on the portion of the word they occur in. On the one hand, Sereer has stems that are fairly invariant in size, almost exclusively alternating by way of morphologically determined consonant mutation of initial (or sometimes final) segments. On the other hand, affixes (and especially verbal suffixes) have phonologically determined allomorphs that alternate between the segmental shapes -VC and -C, seemingly motivated by an avoidance of overlong consonant clusters and hiatus. There is a trade-off in phonological content, then, between invariance in terms of shape (in stems, whose segments do change) and invariance in terms of segments (in affixes, whose shape does change).
  
Phonological alternations in Sereer are differently characterized depending on the portion of the word they occur in. On the one hand, Sereer has stems that are fairly invariant in size, almost exclusively alternating by way of morphologically determined consonant mutation of initial (or sometimes final) segments. On the other hand, affixes (and especially verbal suffixes) have phonologically determined allomorphs that alternate between the segmental shapes -VC and -C, seemingly motivated by an avoidance of overlong consonant clusters and hiatus. There is a trade-off in phonological content, then, between invariance in terms of shape (in stems, whose segments do change) and invariance in terms of segments (in affixes, whose shape does change).
   
  +
=Consonant Mutation=
−
== Stem Morphophonology ==
  
  +
  +
Sereer exhibits a system of consonant mutation by which the initial consonant of a stem can alternate. There are three "grades" of consonants, and each is triggered by specific morphological environments, both nominal and verbal.
  +
  +
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|-
  +
| Unmutated (I) || p || t || c || k || q || b || d || j || g || f || s || x || w || r || ɓ || ɗ || ƴ || m || n || ñ || ŋ || l || y || ʔ
  +
|-
  +
| Fortition (II) || p || t || c || k || q || p || t || c || k || p || c/s || q/k || b || t || ƥ || ƭ || ƈ || m || n || ñ || ŋ || l || y || ʔ
  +
|-
  +
| Nasal (III) || p || t || c || k || q || mb || nd || nj || ng || mb || nj/s || nq/ng || mb || nd || ƥ || ƭ || ƈ || m || n || ñ || ŋ || l || y || ʔ
  +
|-
  +
|}
  +
  +
The "split" mutation patterns of /s/ and /x/ are described below.
  +
  +
==Verbal mutation==
  +
  +
Verb roots appear in unmutated grade when agreeing with a singular subject, and nasal grade when agreeing with a plural subject.
  +
  +
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4"
  +
|-
  +
! Stem !! Singular !! Plural !!
  +
|-
  +
| '''weʄ''' <br/> to swim || '''a weʄa'''<br/> S/he swims || '''a mbeʄa'''<br/> They swim
  +
|-
  +
| '''disoox''' <br/> to sneeze || '''a disooxa'''<br/> S/he sneezes || '''a ndisooxa'''<br/> They sneeze
  +
|-
  +
| '''ɗok''' <br/> to grind || '''a ɗoka'''<br/> S/he grinds || '''a ƭoka'''<br/> They grind
  +
|-
  +
| '''lool''' <br/> to cry || '''a loola'''<br/> S/he cries || '''a loola (yoo)'''<br/> They cry
  +
|-
  +
| '''coox''' <br/> to hand/give || '''a cooxa'''<br/> S/he gives || '''a cooxa (yoo)'''<br/> They give
  +
|}
  +
  +
==Nominal mutation==
  +
  +
For nouns, each noun class triggers a specific grade of consonant mutation.
  +
  +
(list them)
  +
  +
(examples)
  +
  +
There are numerous exceptions to the fact that each noun class enforces a single mutation grade; however, the vast majority of these are recently borrowed words.
  +
  +
===Diminutives and Augmentatives===
  +
  +
Diminutives and augmentatives are exceptional in that the voiceless stops become prenasalized voiced stops, and /s/ always becomes /nj/.
  +
  +
= Stem Morphophonology =
   
 
Sereer has salient alternations in the initial consonants of noun and verb stems. These alternations appear to be morphologically conditioned in a lexically specified manner, since they occur in several different segmental contexts whose only common element is being within a morphologically derived environment (e.g. plurality in both nouns and verbs; addition of apparent nominalizing suffixes to verbs).
  
Sereer has salient alternations in the initial consonants of noun and verb stems. These alternations appear to be morphologically conditioned in a lexically specified manner, since they occur in several different segmental contexts whose only common element is being within a morphologically derived environment (e.g. plurality in both nouns and verbs; addition of apparent nominalizing suffixes to verbs).
   
−
===Standard nominal mutation===
 +
==Standard nominal mutation==
   
 
With one exception (the alveolar fricative ''s''), the '''standard nominal mutation''' pattern is between homorganic segments. Voiced modal stops, prenasalized stops, and fricatives become voiceless modal stops; voiced implosives become voiceless implosives; labial and alveolar approximants /''w''/ and /''r''/ become voiced and voiceless modal stops, respectively. All other consonants are invariant and do not undergo standard nominal mutation.
 
With one exception (the alveolar fricative ''s''), the '''standard nominal mutation''' pattern is between homorganic segments. Voiced modal stops, prenasalized stops, and fricatives become voiceless modal stops; voiced implosives become voiceless implosives; labial and alveolar approximants /''w''/ and /''r''/ become voiced and voiceless modal stops, respectively. All other consonants are invariant and do not undergo standard nominal mutation.
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! Source consonant class !! Mutated consonant !! Labial !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal
  
! Source consonant class !! Mutated consonant !! Labial !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal
 
|-
  
|-
−
| fricative || voiceless stop || f > p || || s<sup>†</sup> > c || || x > q
+
| fricative || voiceless stop || f > p || || s<sup>†</sup> > c || || x > q, k<sup>†</sup>
 
|-
  
|-
 
| prenasalized stop || voiceless stop || mb > p || nd > t || nj > c || ng > k || nq > q ||
 
| prenasalized stop || voiceless stop || mb > p || nd > t || nj > c || ng > k || nq > q ||
Line 35: Line 84:
 
|}
  
|}
   
−
:<sup>†</sup>The consonant ''s'' is a partial exception to the regularity of the standard nominal mutation, as it is sometimes invariant and sometimes not. When it alternates (on a lexically-determined basis), it does so with the voiceless palatal stop ''c''. See [[s alternations]] for more information.
 +
:<sup>†</sup>The consonant ''s'' is a partial exception to the regularity of the standard nominal mutation, as it is sometimes invariant and sometimes not. When it alternates (on a lexically-determined basis), it does so with the voiceless palatal stop ''c''. The consonant ''x'' also has two possible mutations, to /k/ and /q/. See [[S and X Alternations]] for more information.
   
 
The standard nominal mutation is most commonly seen in the singular-plural alternations of nouns in most noun classes. For all noun classes except the ''ox/w'' and ''al/ak'' classes, plural number is indicated by the mutation of the initial consonant of the noun stem, as well as the initial consonant of stems of any adjectives. For the ''ox/w'' class, it is the singular number that is indicated by this mutation, with the plural number evincing the basic form of the stem.
  
The standard nominal mutation is most commonly seen in the singular-plural alternations of nouns in most noun classes. For all noun classes except the ''ox/w'' and ''al/ak'' classes, plural number is indicated by the mutation of the initial consonant of the noun stem, as well as the initial consonant of stems of any adjectives. For the ''ox/w'' class, it is the singular number that is indicated by this mutation, with the plural number evincing the basic form of the stem.
Line 41: Line 90:
 
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4"
  
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4"
 
|-
  
|-
−
! Gloss !! Noun class !! Noun !! Adjective !! Det.
 +
! Gloss !! Noun class !! Noun !! Adjective ('white') !! Det.
 
|-
  
|-
 
| pig <br> pigs || ''l <br> ak'' || '''r'''uul <br> a'''t'''uul || '''r'''an <br> a'''t'''an || le <br> ake
  
| pig <br> pigs || ''l <br> ak'' || '''r'''uul <br> a'''t'''uul || '''r'''an <br> a'''t'''an || le <br> ake
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|}
  
|}
   
−
===Prenasalized nominal mutation===
 +
===Final implosive mutation in eventive nominals===
  +
  +
The deverbal derivational process that forms [[Deverbal nominalization#Eventive nouns|eventive nouns]] is notable for undergoing ''both'' standard nominal mutation of the initial verb stem segment ''and'' standard nominal mutation of the final verb stem segment ''if'' this final segment is an implosive. For instance, the verb stem '''guuɗ''' 'to steal' has the derived eventive nominal form '''kuuƭ''' 'theft' (169). This appears to be a normal application of standard nominal mutation, but with an unusual site of application.
  +
  +
==Prenasalized nominal mutation==
   
 
With one exception (the alveolar fricative ''s''), the '''prenasalized nominal mutation''' pattern is between homorganic segments. Voiced and voiceless modal stops and fricatives become prenasalized stops, as do the labial and alveolar approximants /''w''/ and /''r''/; voiced implosives become voiceless implosives. All other consonants are invariant and do not undergo prenasalized nominal mutation, including the glottal stop.
 
With one exception (the alveolar fricative ''s''), the '''prenasalized nominal mutation''' pattern is between homorganic segments. Voiced and voiceless modal stops and fricatives become prenasalized stops, as do the labial and alveolar approximants /''w''/ and /''r''/; voiced implosives become voiceless implosives. All other consonants are invariant and do not undergo prenasalized nominal mutation, including the glottal stop.
Line 60: Line 113:
 
! Source consonant class !! Mutated consonant !! Labial !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal
  
! Source consonant class !! Mutated consonant !! Labial !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal
 
|-
  
|-
−
| fricative || prenasalized stop || f > mb || || s<sup>†</sup> > nj || || x > nq
+
| fricative || prenasalized stop || f > mb || || s<sup>†</sup> > nj || || x > ng, nq<sup>†</sup>
 
|-
  
|-
 
| voiced stop || prenasalized stop || b > mb || d > nd || j > nj || g > ng ||
 
| voiced stop || prenasalized stop || b > mb || d > nd || j > nj || g > ng ||
Line 81: Line 134:
   
 
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>The glottal stop, unlike other voiceless stops, is invariant.
  
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>The glottal stop, unlike other voiceless stops, is invariant.
−
:<sup>†</sup>Unlike under the standard nominal mutation, the consonant ''s'' always undergoes the prenasalized nominal mutation.
 +
:<sup>†</sup>Unlike under the standard nominal mutation, the consonant ''s'' always undergoes the prenasalized nominal mutation, to the palatal prenasalized stop ''nj''. /x/ varies; see [[S and X Alternations]] for details.
   
 
The prenasalized nominal mutation is seen in the augmentative (''gal/gak'') and diminutive (''ong/fn'') derivational noun classes, as well as in adjectives in the ''f'' and ''n'' singular noun classes.
 
The prenasalized nominal mutation is seen in the augmentative (''gal/gak'') and diminutive (''ong/fn'') derivational noun classes, as well as in adjectives in the ''f'' and ''n'' singular noun classes.
Line 87: Line 140:
 
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4"
  
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4"
 
|-
  
|-
−
! Gloss !! Class !! Noun !! Adjective !! Det.
 +
! Gloss !! Class !! Noun !! Adjective ('white')!! Det.
 
|-
  
|-
 
| pig <br> pig <small>(DIM)</small> <br> pig <small>(AUG)</small> || ''l <br> ong <br> gal'' || '''r'''uul <br> o'''nd'''uul <br> ga'''nd'''uul || ran <br> o'''nd'''an <br> atan || le <br> onge <br> ale
  
| pig <br> pig <small>(DIM)</small> <br> pig <small>(AUG)</small> || ''l <br> ong <br> gal'' || '''r'''uul <br> o'''nd'''uul <br> ga'''nd'''uul || ran <br> o'''nd'''an <br> atan || le <br> onge <br> ale
Line 98: Line 151:
 
|}
  
|}
   
  +
==Prenasalized verbal mutation==
−
===Affective noun classes===
  
   
  +
Verb stems undergo what will be called the '''prenasalizing verbal mutation''' of the stem-initial consonant as a form of inflection for plural subject. As with the other mutation types, "nasalization" is understood to include a parallel mutation in initial voiced implosives that produces voiceless implosives. Only initial consonants that can mutate actually do mutate; the same class of invariant consonants (/l/, /y/, and the nasals) fail to undergo mutation. Verbs that cannot accept this plural inflection due to starting with an inert initial consonant are often disambiguated from singular forms with the addition of a suffix (or clitic?) -o. This is distinct from the equative copular =oo (see [[Predication Strategies]]).
−
Diminutives/augmentatives ("affectives") also exhibit initial segment mutations relative to the non-affective noun category. Further generalizations await.
  
   
  +
Note that this mutation is preserved as an intrinsic element of the stem when the otherwise uninflected stem is [[Reduplication|completely reduplicated]] in predicative constructions.
   
  +
Unlike the nasalizing mutation seen in augmentative/diminutive nouns, voiceless stops do not mutate to voiced prenasalized stops in verbs. Because verbs in their un-mutated (singular) forms do not begin with voiceless implosives or prenasalized stops, these rows are not shown in the table below.
−
===Nouns===
  
−  
−
(discussion on sg./pl. alternations here)
  
−  
−
Deverbal nouns:
  
−
A noun can be formed from (any?) verb by affixing a prefix ''a-'' to the verb root, and altering the initial consonant of the root.
  
   
 
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
! verb !! meaning !! noun !! meaning
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
! Source consonant class !! Mutated consonant !! Labial !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal
−
| ret || go || atet || a trip, "going"
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| voiceless stop || - || p || t || c || k || (q)<sup>†</sup> || '
−
| ɗing || fence (in) || aƭing || fence
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| voiced stop || prenasalized stop || b > mb || d > nd || j > nj || g > ng ||
−
| tos || gather manure || atos || pile of manure
  
 
|-
  
|-
−
| piis || draw a line || apiis || line
 +
| voiced implosive || voiceless implosive || ɓ > ƥ || ɗ > ƭ || ʄ > ƈ
  +
|-
  +
| labial/alveolar approximant || prenasalized stop || w > mb || r > nd
  +
|-
  +
| fricative || prenasalized stop || f > mb || || s > s, nj * || || x > nq, ng *
  +
|-
  +
| palatal/lateral approximant || - || || l || y
  +
|-
  +
| nasal || - || m || n || ñ || ŋ
 
|-
  
|-
−
| weʄ || swim || abeʄ || a swim, swimming
  
 
|}
  
|}
   
  +
<sup>†</sup> No verb stems are attested with an initial q-; this is likely an accidental gap.<br/>
−
Further alternations remain to be seen, but it appears that the same sorts of alternations seen elsewhere in the language are present here (r,d > t ; voiced implosive > voiceless implosives, etc.)
  
  +
<nowiki>*</nowiki> Words in /s-/ and /x-/ mutate consistently to one of the two indicated segments. Although generally consistent for a given word, the choice of mutated segment is not predictable. See [[S and X Alternations]] for more information.
   
  +
Examples:
−
There are some less straightforward alternations involving not only the initial consonant:
  
   
  +
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4"
−
rain (v): deɓ
  
  +
|-
−
<br>
  
  +
! Stem !! Singular !! Plural !!
−
rain (n): ateƥ
  
  +
|-
−  
  +
| '''weʄ''' <br/> to swim || '''a weʄa'''<br/> S/he swims || '''a mbeʄa'''<br/> They swim
−
slap (v): faɗ
  
  +
|-
−
<br>
  
  +
| '''disoox''' <br/> to sneeze || '''a disooxa'''<br/> S/he sneezes || '''a ndisooxa'''<br/> They sneeze
−
slap (n): ombaƭ
  
  +
|-
−  
  +
| '''ɗok''' <br/> to grind || '''a ɗoka'''<br/> S/he grinds || '''a ƭoka'''<br/> They grind
−
===Verbs===
  
  +
|-
−  
  +
| '''lool''' <br/> to cry || '''a loola'''<br/> S/he cries || '''a loola(yo)'''<br/> They cry
−
The initial consonant of verb roots can vary based on whether the subject is singular or plural. Non-implosives alternate with prenasalized stops, and implosives alternate with their voiceless counterparts. Alternations are mostly, but not completely, predictable (note multiple possible alternations for /s/ and /q/).
  
  +
|}
−  
−
sg.~pl.
  
−
<br/>
  
−
f~mb
  
−
<br/>
  
−
b~mb
  
−
<br/>
  
−
w~mb
  
−
<br/>
  
−
ɉ~ɲɉ
  
−
<br/>
  
−
χ~ɴɢ
  
−
<br/>
  
−
ɗ~ƭ
  
−
<br/>
  
−
ɓ~ƥ
  
−
<br/>
  
−
ʄ~ƈ
  
−
<br/>
  
−
r~nd
  
−
<br/>
  
−
d~nd
  
−
<br/>
  
−
g~ng
  
−  
−
Invariant:
  
−
<br/>
  
−
j~j
  
−
<br/>
  
−
l~l
  
−
<br/>
  
−
m~m
  
−
<br/>
  
−
n~n
  
−
<br/>
  
−
ŋ~ŋ
  
−
<br/>
  
−
ɲ~ɲ
  
−
<br/>
  
−
p~p
  
−
<br/>
  
−
t~t
  
−
<br/>
  
−
k~k
  
−
<br/>
  
−
c~c
  
−
<br/>
  
−
s~s
  
−
<br>
  
−
ʔ~ʔ
  
−  
−
We still need to get the sg vs. pl. forms of verbs starting with:
  
−
<br/>
  
−
q
  
−  
−
It seems that verb roots (as seen with singular subjects) cannot start with voiceless implosives or prenasalized stops.
  
   
 
==Postverbal Affixes==
  
==Postverbal Affixes==
−
A number of postverbal affixes exhibit a morphophonological alternation between a -VC and -C form. The -VC form appears between consonants, or after a consonant at the end of word, and the -C form appears elsewhere.
 +
A number of postverbal affixes exhibit a morphophonological alternation between a -VC and -C form. The -VC form appears between consonants, or after a consonant at the end of word, and the -C form appears elsewhere. This is consistent with Sereer [[Phonotactics|phonotactics]] in that it generally prevents CCC sequences.
   
 
1st sg. subject:
  
1st sg. subject:
−
-(u)m
 +
'''-(u)m'''
   
−
gef-aa-m 'I break'
 +
'''gef-aa-m''' 'I break'
 
<br>
  
<br>
 
vs.
  
vs.
 
<br>
  
<br>
−
gef-aa-n-um 'I break it'
 +
'''gef-aa-n-um''' 'I break it'
   
 
2nd sg. object:
  
2nd sg. object:
−
-(o)ng
 +
'''-(o)ng'''
   
 
3rd sg. object:
  
3rd sg. object:
−
-(i)n
 +
'''-(i)n'''
   
 
Causative:
  
Causative:
−
-(i)n
 +
'''-(i)n'''
   
 
Reciprocal:
  
Reciprocal:
−
-(i)r
 +
'''-(i)r'''
   
  +
Ablative:
−
Itive:
  
−
-(i)k
 +
'''-(i)k'''
   
 
Instrumental applicative:
  
Instrumental applicative:
−
-(i)t
 +
'''-(i)t'''
   
 
Reversive:
  
Reversive:
−
-(i)t
 +
'''-(i)t'''

Latest revision as of 18:18, 12 May 2013

Phonological alternations in Sereer are differently characterized depending on the portion of the word they occur in. On the one hand, Sereer has stems that are fairly invariant in size, almost exclusively alternating by way of morphologically determined consonant mutation of initial (or sometimes final) segments. On the other hand, affixes (and especially verbal suffixes) have phonologically determined allomorphs that alternate between the segmental shapes -VC and -C, seemingly motivated by an avoidance of overlong consonant clusters and hiatus. There is a trade-off in phonological content, then, between invariance in terms of shape (in stems, whose segments do change) and invariance in terms of segments (in affixes, whose shape does change).

Consonant Mutation

Sereer exhibits a system of consonant mutation by which the initial consonant of a stem can alternate. There are three "grades" of consonants, and each is triggered by specific morphological environments, both nominal and verbal.

Unmutated (I) p t c k q b d j g f s x w r ɓ ɗ ƴ m n ñ ŋ l y ʔ
Fortition (II) p t c k q p t c k p c/s q/k b t ƥ ƭ ƈ m n ñ ŋ l y ʔ
Nasal (III) p t c k q mb nd nj ng mb nj/s nq/ng mb nd ƥ ƭ ƈ m n ñ ŋ l y ʔ

The "split" mutation patterns of /s/ and /x/ are described below.

Verbal mutation

Verb roots appear in unmutated grade when agreeing with a singular subject, and nasal grade when agreeing with a plural subject.

Stem Singular Plural
weʄ
to swim		 a weʄa
S/he swims		 a mbeʄa
They swim
disoox
to sneeze		 a disooxa
S/he sneezes		 a ndisooxa
They sneeze
ɗok
to grind		 a ɗoka
S/he grinds		 a ƭoka
They grind
lool
to cry		 a loola
S/he cries		 a loola (yoo)
They cry
coox
to hand/give		 a cooxa
S/he gives		 a cooxa (yoo)
They give

Nominal mutation

For nouns, each noun class triggers a specific grade of consonant mutation.

(list them)

(examples)

There are numerous exceptions to the fact that each noun class enforces a single mutation grade; however, the vast majority of these are recently borrowed words.

Diminutives and Augmentatives

Diminutives and augmentatives are exceptional in that the voiceless stops become prenasalized voiced stops, and /s/ always becomes /nj/.

Stem Morphophonology

Sereer has salient alternations in the initial consonants of noun and verb stems. These alternations appear to be morphologically conditioned in a lexically specified manner, since they occur in several different segmental contexts whose only common element is being within a morphologically derived environment (e.g. plurality in both nouns and verbs; addition of apparent nominalizing suffixes to verbs).

Standard nominal mutation

With one exception (the alveolar fricative s), the standard nominal mutation pattern is between homorganic segments. Voiced modal stops, prenasalized stops, and fricatives become voiceless modal stops; voiced implosives become voiceless implosives; labial and alveolar approximants /w/ and /r/ become voiced and voiceless modal stops, respectively. All other consonants are invariant and do not undergo standard nominal mutation.

Source consonant class Mutated consonant Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
fricative voiceless stop f > p s† > c x > q, k†
prenasalized stop voiceless stop mb > p nd > t nj > c ng > k nq > q
voiced stop voiceless stop b > p d > t j > c g > k
alveolar approximant voiceless stop r > t
voiced implosive voiceless implosive ɓ > ƥ ɗ > ƭ ʄ > ƈ
labial approximant voiced stop w > b
voiceless stop - p t c k q '
voiceless implosive - ƥ ƭ ƈ
palatal/lateral approximant - l y
nasal - m n ñ ŋ
†The consonant s is a partial exception to the regularity of the standard nominal mutation, as it is sometimes invariant and sometimes not. When it alternates (on a lexically-determined basis), it does so with the voiceless palatal stop c. The consonant x also has two possible mutations, to /k/ and /q/. See S and X Alternations for more information.

The standard nominal mutation is most commonly seen in the singular-plural alternations of nouns in most noun classes. For all noun classes except the ox/w and al/ak classes, plural number is indicated by the mutation of the initial consonant of the noun stem, as well as the initial consonant of stems of any adjectives. For the ox/w class, it is the singular number that is indicated by this mutation, with the plural number evincing the basic form of the stem.

Gloss Noun class Noun Adjective ('white') Det.
pig
pigs		 l
ak		 ruul
atuul		 ran
atan		 le
ake
rabbit
rabbits		 n
k		 ndool
tool		 ndan
tan		 ne
ke
woman
women		 ox
w		 otew
rew		 oran
tan		 oxe
we
trip
trips		 al
ak		 atex
atex		 atan
atan		 ale
ake

Final implosive mutation in eventive nominals

The deverbal derivational process that forms eventive nouns is notable for undergoing both standard nominal mutation of the initial verb stem segment and standard nominal mutation of the final verb stem segment if this final segment is an implosive. For instance, the verb stem guuɗ 'to steal' has the derived eventive nominal form kuuƭ 'theft' (169). This appears to be a normal application of standard nominal mutation, but with an unusual site of application.

Prenasalized nominal mutation

With one exception (the alveolar fricative s), the prenasalized nominal mutation pattern is between homorganic segments. Voiced and voiceless modal stops and fricatives become prenasalized stops, as do the labial and alveolar approximants /w/ and /r/; voiced implosives become voiceless implosives. All other consonants are invariant and do not undergo prenasalized nominal mutation, including the glottal stop.

Source consonant class Mutated consonant Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
fricative prenasalized stop f > mb s† > nj x > ng, nq†
voiced stop prenasalized stop b > mb d > nd j > nj g > ng
voiceless stop prenasalized stop p > mb t > nd c > nj k > ng q > nq '*
labial/alveolar approximant prenasalized stop w > mb r > nd
voiced implosive voiceless implosive ɓ > ƥ ɗ > ƭ ʄ > ƈ
prenasalized stop - mb nd nj ng nq
voiceless implosive - ƥ ƭ ƈ
palatal/lateral approximant - l y
nasal - m n ñ ŋ
*The glottal stop, unlike other voiceless stops, is invariant.
†Unlike under the standard nominal mutation, the consonant s always undergoes the prenasalized nominal mutation, to the palatal prenasalized stop nj. /x/ varies; see S and X Alternations for details.

The prenasalized nominal mutation is seen in the augmentative (gal/gak) and diminutive (ong/fn) derivational noun classes, as well as in adjectives in the f and n singular noun classes.

Gloss Class Noun Adjective ('white') Det.
pig
pig (DIM)
pig (AUG)		 l
ong
gal		 ruul
onduul
ganduul		 ran
ondan
atan		 le
onge
ale
pigs
pigs (DIM)
pigs (AUG)		 ak
fn
gak		 atuul
fonduul
ganduul		 atan
fondan
andan		 ake
ne
ake
cat n muus ndan ne
snake f fangool fandan fe

Prenasalized verbal mutation

Verb stems undergo what will be called the prenasalizing verbal mutation of the stem-initial consonant as a form of inflection for plural subject. As with the other mutation types, "nasalization" is understood to include a parallel mutation in initial voiced implosives that produces voiceless implosives. Only initial consonants that can mutate actually do mutate; the same class of invariant consonants (/l/, /y/, and the nasals) fail to undergo mutation. Verbs that cannot accept this plural inflection due to starting with an inert initial consonant are often disambiguated from singular forms with the addition of a suffix (or clitic?) -o. This is distinct from the equative copular =oo (see Predication Strategies).

Note that this mutation is preserved as an intrinsic element of the stem when the otherwise uninflected stem is completely reduplicated in predicative constructions.

Unlike the nasalizing mutation seen in augmentative/diminutive nouns, voiceless stops do not mutate to voiced prenasalized stops in verbs. Because verbs in their un-mutated (singular) forms do not begin with voiceless implosives or prenasalized stops, these rows are not shown in the table below.

Source consonant class Mutated consonant Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
voiceless stop - p t c k (q)† '
voiced stop prenasalized stop b > mb d > nd j > nj g > ng
voiced implosive voiceless implosive ɓ > ƥ ɗ > ƭ ʄ > ƈ
labial/alveolar approximant prenasalized stop w > mb r > nd
fricative prenasalized stop f > mb s > s, nj * x > nq, ng *
palatal/lateral approximant - l y
nasal - m n ñ ŋ

† No verb stems are attested with an initial q-; this is likely an accidental gap.
* Words in /s-/ and /x-/ mutate consistently to one of the two indicated segments. Although generally consistent for a given word, the choice of mutated segment is not predictable. See S and X Alternations for more information.

Examples:

Stem Singular Plural
weʄ
to swim		 a weʄa
S/he swims		 a mbeʄa
They swim
disoox
to sneeze		 a disooxa
S/he sneezes		 a ndisooxa
They sneeze
ɗok
to grind		 a ɗoka
S/he grinds		 a ƭoka
They grind
lool
to cry		 a loola
S/he cries		 a loola(yo)
They cry

Postverbal Affixes

A number of postverbal affixes exhibit a morphophonological alternation between a -VC and -C form. The -VC form appears between consonants, or after a consonant at the end of word, and the -C form appears elsewhere. This is consistent with Sereer phonotactics in that it generally prevents CCC sequences.

1st sg. subject: -(u)m

gef-aa-m 'I break'
vs.
gef-aa-n-um 'I break it'

2nd sg. object: -(o)ng

3rd sg. object: -(i)n

Causative: -(i)n

Reciprocal: -(i)r

Ablative: -(i)k

Instrumental applicative: -(i)t

Reversive: -(i)t

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