Derivational Verbal Morphology

Overview

There are several sub-categories of derivational affixes in Sereer:

Takes verb, makes verb ("extensions"):

• -noor: causative. Adds an causative object. (lay "talk" --> laynoor "make someone talk")
• -(i)n: causative. Adds a causative object (mud "sink (intr.)" --> mudin "submerge")
• -and: causative. Affixed only to intransitive verbs (weer "be dry" --> weerand "make dry")
• -oox: stative/reflexive. Valence decreasing; eliminates the direct object (bog "wash something" --> bogoox "be washed / wash oneself")
• -an: benefactive applicative. Licenses an additional argument, a beneficiary (ʄeew "draw water" --> ʄeewan "draw water for someone")
• -(i)t: instrumental applicative. Licenses an additional argument, an instrument (waq "dig" --> waqit "dig with something")
• -(i)t: locative applicative. Licenses an additional argument, a location (ñaam "eat" --> ñaamit "eat somewhere")
• -(i)r: reciprocal (xum "tie" --> xumir "tie each other")
• -(i)k: ablative. Indicates directed motion away from the starting point ("to go do X") (naf "hit" --> nafik "go hit")
• -iid: allative. Indicates motion towards ("to come to X") (ɗaan "sleep" --> ɗaaniid "come to sleep")
• -andoor: simulfactive. Indicates that the action is done all at once (weg "close" --> wegandoor "close all at once")
• -(i)t: reversive ('up "bury" --> 'upit "unbury")
• -aƭ: indicates that an action is done carefully or slowly (moof "sit" --> moofaƭ "sit carefully/slowly")
• -aƭar: indicates that an action is done poorly or not at all (ʄuf "run" ʄufaƭar "not run / run poorly")
• -at: indicates that an action is performed repeatedly, or not any more. Used only for unrealized actions.
• -loox/-noox: unclear/inconsistent meaning. Unproductive.

Takes verb, makes adjective:

• -u , a suffix that takes a verb and turns it into an adjective (e.g. saɗik "to be strong, tough" -> saɗku "strong, tough"; may "to be many" -> mayu "many")

Takes verb, makes noun:

• -ir, a suffix that makes instrument-type nouns from verb stems (e.g. βɛʄ "to swim" --> bɛʄir "thing used to swim")
• RED-, prefixing partial reduplication: makes a noun from a verb "X" meaning "one who (habitually) X"
• NC- + mutation(s), forms a deverbal noun.

Valence-Changing Extensions

Causative

There are at least three causative extensions, -in/-n, -noor, and -and. These extensions increase the valence of a verb, adding a causative object, which is caused to perform the action of the verb by the subject of the causative verb.

-noor

-Noor seems to be most productive, and can be affixed to most (if not all?) verbs.

Unextended verb:

<gl fontsize=12> Miñaan a fala naak le \gll Miñaan a fal -a naak le Miñaan 3 kick -FV cow DET \trans M. kicks the cow </gl>

Causative verb:

<gl fontsize=12> Miñaan a falnoora (a) Yande naak le \gll Miñaan a fal -noor -a (a) Yande naak le Miñaan 3 kick -CAUS -FV (OBJ) Yande cow DET \trans M. makes Y. kick the cow </gl>

The causative object (when not pronominalized) always appears directly after the verb.

<gl fontsize=12> Miñaan a falnoora naak le (a) Yande \gll Miñaan a fal -noor -a naak le (a) Yande Miñaan 3 kick -CAUS -FV cow DET (OBJ) Yande \trans M. makes the cow kick Y. \trans *M. makes Y. kick the cow </gl>

-in/-n

The extension -in/-n functions in the same way, but its distribution is lexically conditioned.

Unextended verb:

<gl fontsize=12> pis ne a ʄufa \gll pis ne a ʄuf -a horse DET 3 run -FV \trans the horse runs </gl>

Causative verb:

<gl fontsize=12> ʄufnaam pis ne \gll ʄuf -n -aa -m pis ne run -CAUS -FV -1s horse DET \trans I make the horse run </gl>

-and

The extension -and can be applied to some (or all?) verbs roots that are basically (that is, in their unextended form) stative.

Unextended verb:

<gl fontsize=12> xuƥaam \gll xuƥ -aa -m wet -FV -1s \trans I am wet </gl>

Causative verb:

<gl fontsize=12> ateƥ a xuƥandaxam \gll ateƥ a xuƥ -and -ax -a -m rain 3 wet -CAUS -AX -FV -1s \trans The rain wets me / causes me to be wet </gl>

Stative/Reflexive

The stative extension -oox decreases the valence of a transitive verb. The state of the single remaining argument (the subject) is described by the verb. -oox also commonly has a reflexive meaning.

Unextended verb: subject = 'I', object = 'window'

<gl fontsize=12> wegaam ofalanter ole \gll weg -aa -m ofalanter ole close -FV -1s window DET \trans I close the window </gl>

Stative verb: subject = 'window'

<gl fontsize=12> ofalanter ole a wegooxa \gll ofalanter ole a weg -oox -a window DET 3 close -STAT -FV \trans The window is closed </gl>

The extension -oox can also be used with (some) intransitive verbs to indicate that they are performed repeatedly, though this interpretation is optional.

Unextended verb:

<gl fontsize=12> a doxoña \gll a doxoñ -a 3 spit -FV \trans he spits (once) </gl>

Stative verb:

<gl fontsize=12> a doxoñooxa \gll a doxoñ -oox -a 3 spit -STAT -FV \trans he spits (repeatedly) </gl>

Benefactive Applicative

The benefactive applicative extension -an increases the valence of the verb, adding an object which functions semantically as the beneficiary.

Unextended verb:

<gl fontsize=12> Jegaan a fala naak le \gll Jegaan a fal -a naak le Jegaan 3 kick -FV cow DET \trans Jegaan kicks the cow </gl>

Benefactive verb:

<gl fontsize=12> Jegaan a falana naak le a doktoor fe \gll Jegaan a fal -an -a naak le a doktoor fe Jegaan 3 kick -BEN -FV cow DET OBJ doctor DET \trans Jegaan kicks the cow for the doctor </gl>

OR

<gl fontsize=12> Jegaan a falana a doktoor fe naak le \gll Jegaan a fal -an -a a doktoor fe naak le Jegaan 3 kick -BEN -FV OBJ doctor DET cow DET \trans Jegaan kicks the cow for the doctor </gl>

Instrumental Applicative

The instrumental applicative extension -it/-t increases the valence of the verb, adding an object that functions semantically as the instrument. Without the instrumental applicative, instruments are obligatorily marked with fo 'with'; this can be omitted if the instrumental applicative is affixed to the verb, but is sometimes still used in conjunction with the applicative.

Unextended verb:

<gl fontsize=12> waqaam asemb ale (fapel ale) \gll waq -aa -m asemb ale (f- apel ale) dig -FV -1s hole DET (with shovel DET) \trans I dig the hole (with a shovel) </gl>

Instrumental verb:

<gl fontsize=12> waqtaam asemb ale (f)apel ale \gll waq -t -aa -m asemb ale (f-) apel ale dig -INST -FV -1s hole DET (with) shovel DET \trans I dig the hole with the shovel </gl>

OR

<gl fontsize=12> waqtaam (f)apel ale asemb ale \gll waq -t -aa -m (f-) apel ale asemb ale dig -INST -FV -1s (with) shovel DET hole DET \trans I dig the hole with the shovel </gl>

Locative Applicative

The locative applicative extension -it/-t requires that an action take place at a location. This location is expressed as an object of the verb, though in some sentences it can optionally be introduced by the preposition no.

Unextended verb:

<gl fontsize=12> ñaamaam \gll ñaam -aa -m eat -FV -1s \trans I eat </gl>

Locative verb:

<gl fontsize=12> norestoran fe ñaamtaam \gll n- orestoran fe ñaam -t -aa -m in restaurant DET eat -LOC -FV -1s \trans I eat in/at the restaurant </gl>

Reciprocal

The reciprocal extension -ir/-r is used for actions performed by multiple people on each other, or together with each other.

Unextended verb:

<gl fontsize=12> i nafa naak le \gll i naf -a naak le 1p hit -FV cow DET \trans we hit the cow </gl>

Reciprocal verb:

<gl fontsize=12> i nafra gll\ i naf -r -a 1p hit -RECIP -FV \trans we hit each other </gl>

It is possible for reciprocal verbs to take a singular subject, in which case an additional participant must be introduced with the preposition fo

<gl fontsize=12> nafraam fo ten \gll naf -r -aa -m fo ten hit -RECIP -FV -1s with him \trans He and I hit each other </gl>

Passive

The passive marker -e' eliminates the object of a transitive verb, with the subject being acted on by the verb. Unlike with the stative extension, there is an implication of agentivity, though it is not possible to express the agent in a passive clause. This suffix appears to not truly be an extension, as it is takes the place of inflection morphology (the "Final Vowel" -a), rather than simply being affixed to the verb root.

<gl fontsize=12> nafe' \gll naf -e' hit -PASS.2s \gll You are hit </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> naf'e' \gll naf -' -e' hit -PST -PASS.2s \trans You were hit </gl>

Other Extensions

Ablative

The ablative extension -ik/-k indicates motion away from the starting point.

Unextended verb:

<gl fontsize=12> mexe wegaa ofalanter ole \gll me- xe weg -aa ofalanter ole 1s- COP close -PROG window DET \trans I’m closing the window </gl>

Ablative verb:

<gl fontsize=12> mexe wegkaa ofalanter ole \gll me- xe weg -k -aa ofalanter ole 1s- COP close -ABL -PROG window DET \trans I’m going to close the window </gl>

It can also express future actions. Thus, the above example is ambiguous between a future and motion interpretation (as is the English gloss).

This appears to be the only extension that can consistently occur in multiple positions, and can even appear multiple times in a single verb, with no apparent change in meaning. All three of these sentences have the same meaning, and are equally natural:

<gl fontsize=12> foolnoorkaanum \gll fool -noor -k -aa -n -um jump -CAUS -ABL -FV -OBJ.3s -1s \trans I make him go and jump \trans I go make him jump </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> fooliknooraanum \gll fool -ik -noor -aa -n -um jump -ABL -CAUS -FV -OBJ.3s -1s \trans ditto </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> fooliknoorkaanum \gll fool -ik -noor -k -aa -n -um jump -ABL -CAUS -ABL -FV -OBJ.3s -1s \trans ditto </gl>

Allative

The allative extension -iid indicates motion towards.

Unextended verb:

<gl fontsize=12> ɗaani meek \gll ɗaan -i meek sleep -IMPER.2s here \trans sleep here! </gl>

Allative verb:

<gl fontsize=12> ɗaaniidi meek \gll ɗaan -iid -i meek sleep -ALL -IMPER.2s here \trans come sleep here! </gl>

-iid can also have an interpretation of "to gradually do something"

<gl fontsize=12> a 'andiida Berkeley \gll a 'and -iid -a Berkeley 3 know -ALL -FV Berkeley \trans He's coming (motion) to know Berkeley OR \trans He's coming/getting to know Berkeley (day by day) </gl>

Simulfactive

The extension -andoor indicates that the action of a verb is done all at once.

Unextended verb:

<gl fontsize=12> a wega xapalanter axe \gll a weg -a xa- palanter axe 3 close -FV pl- window DET \trans He closes the windows </gl>

Simulfactive verb:

<gl fontsize=12> a wegandoora xapalanter axe \gll a weg -andoor -a xa- palanter axe 3 close -SIMUL -FV pl- window DET \trans He closes the windows all at once </gl>

Reversive

The reversive extension -it/-t indicates that the action of the verb is undone.

Unextended verb:

<gl fontsize=12> mexe liwaa \gll me- xe liw -aa 1s- COP tanfle -PROG \trans I’m tangling </gl>

Reversive verb:

<gl fontsize=12> mexe liwtaa \gll me- xe liw -t -aa 1s- COP tangle -REV -PROG \trans I’m untangling </gl>

This extension is unpredictably fossilized in certain verbs, e.g. wet- ‘open’ vs. weg- ‘close.’

-aƭ and -aƭar

The extension -aƭ indicates that an action is done slowly or carefully.

<gl fontsize=12> layaƭi \gll lay -aƭ -i speak -CARE -IMPER.2s \trans speak carefully! </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> nafaƭi \gll naf -aƭ -i hit -CARE -IMPER.2s \trans don't hit too hard </gl>

-aƭar is the negative version of this extension, though it is not simply -aƭ with regular negative morphology. -aƭar indicates that an action is done poorly or not at all.

<gl fontsize=12> pis um ne a ʄufaƭara \gll pis um ne a ʄuf -aƭar -a horse his DET 3 fun -CARE.NEG -FV \trans his horse didn't run OR \trans his horse doesn't run well </gl>

Co-occurrence of Extensions

Homophonous extensions can occur adjacently to one another with very little restriction, other than general phonotactics. In the example below, affix order is actually unclear, as the reversive and instrumental applicative could be in the order listed or reversed.

a uuptita apel ale.

a	uup	-t	-it	-a	a-	pel	ale
3SG	bury	REV?	INST.APP?	3SG	NC	shovel	DET.NC

S/he unburies with a shovel. (092)

Valence-changing suffixes (like -noor below) seem to occur closer to the verb stem than others (like -k below), which appear to occur inside of inflectional morphology without exception.

wegaanum.

weg	-aan	-um
close	3SG.OBJ	1SG

I close it. (091)

wegnoorkaanum.

weg	-noor	-k	-aan	-um
close	CAUS	ITV	3SG.OBJ	1SG

I make him go to jail. (lit. make him go to close up) (091)

Multiple suffix marking

Some verbs with a large amount of derivational morphology are multiply marked with certain applicative extensions. In (1), for instance, -ik 'itive' is marked twice, once immediately after the stem and another time immediately before the inflectional morphology. In (2) and (3), -it 'locative applicative' and -ik are marked twice (respectively), with considerably more intervening derivational morphology. These examples seem to suggest that the very end of the derivational morphology complex, immediately before the "default vowel" and the inflectional morphology complex, is the primary site for this affix doubling.

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> fooliknoorkaanum. \gll fool -ik -noor -k -a -an -um jump ITI CAUS ITI DV 3S.OBJ 1S.SBJ \trans I make him go jump. (130) </gl>

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> a uptiktirooxta apel. \gll a= up -t -ik -t -ir -oox -t -a a- pel 3P.SBJ bury REV ITI INST RECP REFL INST DV NC shovel \trans They go unbury each other with shovels. (122) </gl>

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> a uptiktirooxka apel. \gll a= up -t -ik -t -ir -oox -k -a a- pel 3P.SBJ bury REV ITI INST RECP REFL ITI DV NC shovel \trans They go unbury each other with shovels. (122) </gl>

It is unclear what motivates this multiple suffixation, although it is probable in certain cases that this multiple usage could be thought of as "resumptive"--- the relevant suffixes occur twice, once in their usual position and again in closer proximity to the licensed argument.

Verb pairs demonstrating V to V derivation

Suffix involved	Unsuffixed	Gloss	Suffixed	Gloss	Session	notes
-oox	jik	to buy	jikoox	to sell	JM_046
-loox	ɗeet	to see	ɗeetloox	to notice	JM_048
-oox	doxoñ	to spit	doxoñoox	to spit repeatedly	JM_048
-oox	teer	to land a boat, arrive	teerooχ	to await a guest	JM_048
-ir	xas	to scold, berate	xasir	to argue	MF_029
-in	waʄ	to boil (intr.)	waʄin	to boil (trans.)	MF_045
-in	mud	to sink	mudin	to make sink, to throw/put into water	MF_047
-oox	mud	to sink	mudoox	to swim down on purpose	MF_047	translation imprecise, seeking clarification
-oox	xooʄ	to dip, dunk	xooʄoox	to dip, dunk into	MF_047	translation imprecise; seeking clarification
-oox	saang	to roll (trans.)	saangoox	to roll (intr.)	ED-058
-ir	maaf	to fell, knock down	maafir	to wrestle	NB-057
-noor	weg	to close	wegnoor	to make s.o. close s.t.	MF_091	may be analyzable as weg-in-(C)oor
-ik	weg	to close	wegik	to go close	MF_091
-it	uup	to bury	uupit	to dig up (un-bury)	JM_092
-it	liw	to tangle (trans)	liwit	to untangle (trans)	MF_047
-it	waq	to dig	waqit	to dig with	JM_092	e.g. a shovel
-an	fal	to kick	falan	to kick for	JM_092	e.g. for someone else