Inflectional Verbal Morphology

Subject Marking

Sereer verbs agree in person and number with their subject. The following person/number agreement morphemes are used by the language, depending on morphological factors discussed below:

Basic subject marking:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1SG	-(u)m	1PL	i=
2SG	-o/Ø	2PL	nu=
3SG	a=	3PL	a=

The set of "strong" subject markers is used in contexts such as subordinate clauses, relative clauses, and switch-referent situations.

"Strong" subject marking:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1SG	in/=n, (u)m	1PL	i=
2SG	o=	2PL	nu=
3SG	te=	3PL	de=

In addition to these suffixes and clitics, number agreement is indicated by initial consonant mutation, with unmutated verb forms agreeing with singular subjects, and nasal grade verb forms agreeing with plural subjects.

Negation

Negation is expressed by verbal suffixes of the form -ee(r), -i(r), -ii. These allomorphs are not strictly phonologically conditioned. The negative suffix appears closer to the root than subject or object marking suffixes. The negative marker co-occurring with the singular subject agreement morphemes are given below. The third person agreement proclitic a= does not appear with negative verbs, unless the verb is also inflected for extraction or conditionality (see below). In all cases, the plural forms of negative-marked verbs differ from the third person singular only in the agreement proclitic (for 1st and 2nd pl.), and initial consonant mutation.

Negative marking:

Gloss	Sereer
1SG	-ii-m
2SG	-ir-o
3SG	-ee(r)

Finiteness

Verb forms are either finite or non-finite. A verb form is finite if it contains one of four morphemes: the "default vowel" -a, the extraction marker -u, the passive suffix -e, or the negative suffix -eer (or any of their allomorphs). The "default vowel" (glossed DV) appears in a variety of finite verb forms, and caries no consistent semantic information other than finiteness. It has an allomorph -aa when immediately preceding the suffixes -(u)m "1s subject", -(i)n "3s object", and (o)ng "2s object" (see below).

Non-finite forms

There are two types of non-finite verb forms; infinitives and progressive participles. The infinitive is the bare verb stem. The progressive participle is formed by affixing the suffix -aa (glossed PROG) to the stem, though when co-occuring with certain other suffixes, the allomorph -a appears. Though object, passive, tense, and aspect suffixes can appear on the both types of non-finite verbs, subject agreement suffixes cannot, nor can they inflect for negation. Subject agreement proclitics (both basic and strong) can occur on non-finite forms, for example in subordinate clauses. Non-finite forms always exhibit initial consonant mutation to agree with their subject, if one exists. Non-finite verb forms can serve as the subject or object of clauses. They are often preceded by the non-finite particle o (glossed INF), though not obligatorily.

<gl fontsize=11> a mbar-a (o) maafir \gll a mbar-a o maaf-ir 3 must.pl-DV INF fall-RECIP \trans They had to wrestle </gl>

<gl fontsize=11> bugaam o jawaa maalo \gll bug-aa-m o jaw-aa maalo want-DV-1s INF cook-PROG rice \trans I want to be cooking rice OR I like cooking rice </gl>

Imperative

Imperative forms exist for second person adressees only. The singular imperative is formed with the suffix -i, and the plural imperative with the suffixes -y-o. Note that object markers intervene between the suffixes -y and -o (see below).

Imperative marking:

Gloss	Sereer
2SG	-i
2PL	-y-o

The forms discussed so far are given below for the verb fal "kick."

kick

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falaam	i mbala	1	faliim	i mbalee(r)
2	fala	nu mbala	2	faliro	nu mbalee(r)
3	a fala	a mbala	3	falee(r)	mbalee(r)
Infinitive	fal	mbal
Prog. Part.	falaa	mbalaa
Imperative	fali	mbalyo

Object Marking

Incorporated object pronouns ("object markers") exist as affixes for singular objects. These affixes directly precede the subject suffixes, if any are present, though combinations of object markers and other suffixes are often highly idiosyncratic. Of especial note is the element -ax which appears in various forms involving a first person singular participant.

The first person singular object marker is -(a)am.

kick me

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	—	—	1	—	—
2	falaxamo	nu mbalaxam	2	faliraamo	nu mbaliraam
3	a falaxam	a mbalaxam	3	faliraam	mbaliraam
Infinitive	falaam	mbalaam
Prog. Part.	falaxam	mbalaxam
Imperative	falaam	mbalyaamo

The second person singular object marker is -(o)ng.

kick you

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falaxong	i mbalaang	1	falirong	i mbalirang
2	—	—	2	—	—
3	a falaang	a mbalaang	3	falirang	mbalirang
Infinitive	falong	mbalong
Prog. Part.	falang	mbalang
Imperative	—	—

The third person singular object marker is -(i)n. Note the allomorphs of the imperative suffixes that occur when alongside this object marker.

kick him

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falaanum	i mbalaan	1	falinum	i mbaliran
2	falaano	nu mbalaan	2	falino	nu mbaliran
3	a falaan	a mbalaan	3	faliran	mbaliran
Infinitive	falin	mbalin
Prog. Part.	falan	mbalan
Imperative	faleen	(mbalyeeno)

Free Object Pronouns

Free pronouns exist in addition to the incorporated object pronouns (object markers) discussed above.

Free object pronouns:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1SG	mi'	1PL	'in(o)
2SG	wo'	2PL	nuun
3SG	ten	3PL	den(o)

These free pronouns can be used in either object or subject position. When used as a subject, they do not take the place of the subject agreement clitic or suffix, as these are truly agreement markers. When used as an object, these free pronouns do take the place of the object markers, as the object markers are truly incorporated pronouns. Use of a free pronoun is the only way to express a plural pronominal object. For singular objects, the free pronouns can optionally be used instead of the object markers, and are necessary when expressing multiple third person singular objects.

Reflexives

Reflexivity is indicated by use of the noun xoox (sg.) qoox (pl.) "head/self," along with the appropriate possessor (possessive adjective for a singular participant, free pronoun in genitive position for a plural participant).

Reflexive pronouns:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1SG	xoox um	1PL	qoox 'in
2SG	xoox of	2PL	qoox nuun
3SG	xoox um	3PL	qoox den

These reflexive pronouns are generally preceded by the differential object marking preposition a, unless for some reason the participant is inanimate.

Position of object pronouns

In complex clauses, such as those involving the verb bug "want" or ɓaat "do again," the object pronoun, whether incorporated (object marker), or free, can appear on (after) either the higher or lower verb. The former configuration (on/after the higher verb) is generally preferred, despite the fact that the object is truly that of the lower verb.

<gl fontsize=11> bugaam o warong \gll bug-aa-m o war-ong want-DV-1s INF kill-2s.obj \trans I want to kill you. </gl>

<gl fontsize=11> bugaaxong o war \gll bug-aa-x-ong o war want-DV-AX.1s-2s.obj INF kill \trans I want to kill you. </gl>

<gl fontsize=11> ɓaata (o) foon a 'in \gll ɓaat-a o foon a 'in add-2s INF kiss OBJ 1p \trans You kiss us again. </gl>

<gl fontsize=11> ɓaata (a) 'in o foon \gll ɓaat-a (a) 'in o foon add-2s obj 1pl INF kiss \trans You kiss us again. </gl>

Focus extraction marking

In cases of focus extraction, different forms of the verb appear. These are marked by the suffix -u, which has a zero allomorph when preceding a vowel-initial suffix. This suffix -u takes the place of the default vowel -a. In addition to subject marking, these extraction forms of the verb can include negative marking and object marking. In cases of subject extraction, the verb shows no agreement affixes (though it does exhibit the proper mutation for number agreement). The rows marked with "S" in the paradigms below indicate these subject-extraction forms. When some other element is extracted, the verb does exhibit subject agreement. Note that non-finite forms cannot take extraction morphology.

kick (w/ extraction)

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falum	i mbalu	1	faleerum	i mbaleeru
2	falo	nu mbalu	2	faleero	nu mbaleeru
3	a falu	a mbalu	3	a faleeru	a mbaleeru
S	falu	mbalu	S	faleeru	mbaleeru

kick me (w/ extraction)

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	—	—	1	—	—
2			2
3			3
S			S

kick you (w/ extraction)

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1			1
2	—	—	2	—	—
3			3
S	falong		S

kick him (w/ extraction)

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1			1
2			2
3	a falun	a mbalun	3
S	falun	mbalun	S

Passive

The passive forms of the verb are formed with the suffix -(e)e. The passive infinitive if marked by the suffix -el, and the passive progressive participle by -eel. Object markers cannot appear on passive forms of the verb. Any object that is present must be expressed as a free pronoun or NP. Negative forms of passive verbs take the suffix -aand, which co-occurs with the passive suffix only in first and second singular forms.

kick

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	faleem	i mbale	1	falaandeem	i mbalaand
2	falee	nu mbale	2	falaandee	nu mbalaand
3	a fale	a mbale	3	falaand	mbalaand
Infinitive	falel	mbalel
Prog. Part.	faleel	mbaleel
Imperative	?	?

Relative marking

Relative Clauses include relativized forms of the verb, marked with the suffix -(ii)(n)a. This suffix combines with subject and object markers very idiosyncratically. These relative forms appear in two principle contexts: relative clauses, and following y- words (e.g. ye, ya, yaaga) "when/while." In a subject-headed relative clause (e.g. 'the man that kicked'), no subject agreement is present. These forms are given in the tables below in the rows marked "S".

that (__) kick(s)

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	faluuma	i mbalna	1	faleeruuma	i mbaleerna
2	faloona	nu mbalna	2	faleeroona	nu mbaleerna
3	te falna	de mbalne	3	te faleerna	de mbaleerna
S	falna	mbalna	S	faleerna	mbaleerna

Relative verb forms including object markers are given below:

that/when (__) kick(s) me

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	—	—	1	—	—
2	falaxoona	nu mbalaxama	2	(faleeraxoona)	(nu mbaleeraxama)
3	te falaxama	de mbalaxama	3	(te faleeraxama)	(de mbaleeraxama)
S	falaxama	mbalaxama	S	faleeraxama	mbaleeraxama

that/when (__) kick(s) you

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	in faloonga	i mbaloonga	1	(in faleeroonga)	(i mbaleeroonga)
2	—	—	2	—	—
3	te faloonga	de mbaloonga	3	(te faleeroonga)	(de mbaleeroonga)
S	faloonga	mbaloonga	S	faleeroonga	mbaleeroonga

that/when (__) kick(s) him

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falanuuma	i mbaluuna	1	(faleeranuuma)	(i mbaleeruuna)
2	falanoona	nu mbaluuna	2	(faleeranoona)	(nu mbaleeruuna)
3	te faluuna	de mbaluuna	3	(te faleeruuna)	(de mbaleeruuna)
S	faluuna	mbaluuna	S	faleeruuna	mbaleeruuna

Passive verb forms can also be relativized.

that/when (__) am/are/is kicked

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1			1
2			2
3	te faleena	de mbaleena	3	te falaandeena	de mbalaandeena
S	faleena	mbaleena	S	falaandeena	mbalaandeena

The allomorph -iina of the relative suffix appears when co-occuring with the tense/aspect suffixes -' (past), -k (future), and -eeg (past imperfect) (see below).

Conditional marking

The suffix -ang is used to express conditionality (o falanga "if you kick"). Note the absence of any overt subject marking for the first singular in this form. This pattern of subject marking is shared by verb forms occurring with the auxiliaries fat, xan, and bar (see below). These verb forms cannot appear in isolation, and require the presence of some other clause to indicate what happens if the condition is met.

if (__) kick(s)

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falanga	i mbalanga	1	falangee	i mbalangee
2	o falanga	nu mbalanga	2	o falangee	nu mbalangee
3	a falanga	a mbalanga	3	a falangee	a mbalangee

Conditional forms can appear with object marking:

(fill in when we have it)

Tense and aspect

Tense

Matrix verbs are obligatorily marked for either tense or aspect in Sereer, and are often marked for both through portmanteau grammatical tense and aspect markers.

The following are

Typical subject marking:

Gloss	Sereer
Default present tense, aspect/perfective	-a
Simple past suffix	-'
Non-past Imperfective suffix	-aa
Past Imperfective suffix	-eeg
Future auxiliary	xan

The proximal tense marks events that happened temporally close to the speech act, which includes the present or recent past. Events outside of the recent past-present time frame cannot be marked with -aa.

The future tense xan, however, can take -aa marking to indicate future progressive. xan can also appear by itself without any suffix aspect marking, and is glossed as the simple future. Note: Another pre-verbal morph, kan, behaves similarly to xan with regards to subject marking and position relative to the verb, but whose semantic applications are quite different. So far, the best gloss of kan is as a marker of predicate focus.

The proclitic progressive aspect marker xe/we must co-occur with either proximal tense or progressive past tense. With proximal tense -aa, xe/we is glossed as present progressive, and is past progressive with -eega. xe/we has special person marking; see the section on subject marking above.

Proximal Tense

Sample proximal tense verbal paradigm:

Proximal tense:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1sg- 'I run'	ʄuufaam	1pl- 'we run'	iƈuufaa
2sg- 'you run'	ʄuufaa'	2pl- 'you all run'	nuƈuufaa
3sg- 'he runs'	aʄuufaa	3pl- 'they run'	aƈuufaa

Past Tense

Sample past tense verbal paradigm:

Past tense:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1sg- 'I ran'	ʄuuf'aam	1pl- 'we ran'	iƈuuf'aa
2sg- 'you ran'	ʄuuf'aa'	2pl- 'you all ran'	nuƈuuf'aa
3sg 'he ran'	ʄuuf'aa	3pl- 'they ran'	aƈuuf'aa

Past Progressive Tense

Sample past progressive tense paradigm:

Past progressive tense:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1sg- 'I was running'	ʄuufeegam	1pl- 'we were running'	iƈuufeega
2sg- 'you were running'	ʄuufeega'	2pl- 'you all were running'	nuƈuufeega
3sg 'he was running'	ʄuufeegaa	3pl- 'they were running'	aƈuufeega

Aspect

Two auxiliary verbs, xe/we 'progressive', and xan 'future', mark aspect in Sereer. The auxiliary xe/we takes special subject marking (see the section on Subject marking), and can occur with the proximal or past progressive tense. The auxiliary xan takes a different type of exceptional person marking, and can occur without a tense suffix or with the proximal tense suffix (for a future progressive reading).

Future aspect

Sample future aspect paradigm:

Future aspect:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1sg- 'I will see him'	xam ga' in	1pl- 'we will see him'	xani ng'a' in
2sg- 'you will see him'	xano ga' in	2pl- 'you all will see him'	xan nu nga' in
3sg 'he will see her'	xana ga' in	3pl- 'they will see him'	xan a nga' in

Progressive aspect

Sample progressive aspect paradigm:

Progressive aspect:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1sg- 'I am running'	mexe ʄuufaa	1pl- 'we were running'	inwe ƈuufaa
2sg- 'you are running'	wexe ʄuufaa	2pl- 'you all were running'	nunwe ƈuufaa
3sg 'he is running'	axe ʄuufaa	3pl- 'they were running'	awe ƈuufaa

TAM Combinations

The suffixal tenses and pre-verbal auxiliary aspects can be combined in the following ways:

TAM combinations:

Pre-verbal	Root	Post-verbal	Gloss
	_	-aa	proximal
	_	-'a	past
	_	-eega	progressive past
xe/we	_	-aa	present progressive
xe/we	_	-eega	progressive past
xan	_		future
xan	_	-aa	future progressive

Examples of TAM combinations

The following are examples of each attested TAM combination in Sereer thus far:

Present progressive: <gl fontsize=11> mexe laca \gll me-xe lac-aa 1s-PRG ask-PROX \trans I’m asking (065) </gl>

Proximal: <gl fontsize=11> ŋasaam \gll ŋas-aa-m play-PROX-1S \trans I play (096) </gl>

Future progressive: <gl fontsize=11> \gll xan nafaa aJegaan xan naf-aa a-Jegaan FUT hit-PROX OBJ-Jegan \trans I will be hitting Jegan repeatedly (108) </gl>

Future: <gl fontsize=11> \gll xan naf aJegaan xan naf a-Jegaan FUT hit OBJ-Jegan \trans I will hit Jegan (once) (108) </gl>

Past: <gl fontsize=11> \gll sob 'am sob ’a-m be.clumsy PST-1s \trans I was clumsy (068) </gl>

Progressive past (1): <gl fontsize=11> \gll feceegam fec-eega-m dance-PRG.PST-1s \trans I used to dance (133) </gl>

Progressive past (2): <gl fontsize=11> \gll mexe fooleega me-xe fool-eega 1s-prg. jump-pst.prg \trans I was jumping (repeatedly) (108) </gl>

ka-

Sereer allows a proclitic ka- to appear with tense and aspect morphology. The exact semantics of ka- are yet to be determined. Ka- often occurs with the progressive aspect -aa. However, it is not inherently linked to the progressive semantics like as the auxiliary "xe/we" is when combined with the proximal "-aa" suffix. Similarly, though, ka- also takes special subject marking (See section on Subject Marking).

Progressive KA- reading: <gl fontsize=11> \gll kam labaa ka-m lab-aa KA-1S drown-PROX \trans I'm drowning (166) </gl>

Non-progressive KA- reading: <gl fontsize=11> \gll kam lab ka-m lab KA-1S drown \trans I (already) drowned (166) </gl>

However, this progressive/non-progressive reading distinction only occurs with atelic verbs. The exact function of ka- is yet to be determined. This morpheme could also have focus/extraction function (See note in Focus section)

Stem-initial consonant mutation

See Phonological Alternations.