Inflectional Verbal Morphology

Verbs in Sereer are inflected for person and number agreement, negation, tense and aspect, and a number of other categories. Inflectional morphemes are strictly ordered as follows:

Auxiliary

Subject clitic

ROOT

Extensions

Tense

Past imperfect

Conditional "if"

Negation

Finiteness

Object

Subject

Relativization

-xe xan, fat, bar kaa naa

(i)n, (u)m, i o, nu a, te, de

many

-', -k

-eeg

-ang

-ee(r), -ir, -(i)i

-a -u -e, -el, -eel -aa

-aam/-xam -(o)ng -(i)n

-(u)m -(o)

-(ii)(n)a

#Verb Paradigm

Subject Marking

Sereer verbs agree in person and number with their subject. The language exhibits three subject agreement patterns, the use of which depends on morphological factors discussed below. In addition to these suffixes and clitics, number agreement is indicated by initial consonant mutation, with unmutated verb forms agreeing with singular subjects, and nasal grade verb forms agreeing with plural subjects.

Basic marking

Basic subject marking:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1SG	-(u)m	1PL	i=
2SG	-(o)	2PL	nu=
3SG	a=	3PL	a=

The vowels of the 1st and 2nd singular subject suffixes are assimilated to a preceding vowel (specifically the 'default vowel' -a and the passive -e), yielding a long vowel.

Strong marking

The set of "strong" subject markers is used in contexts such as subordinate clauses, relative clauses, and switch-referent situations.

"Strong" subject marking:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1SG	in/=n, (u)m	1PL	i=
2SG	o=	2PL	nu=
3SG	te=	3PL	de=

The third person strong clitics te= and de= can optionally co-occur with the basic third person clitic a=, though this configuration surfaces relatively infrequently.

<gl fontsize=12> bugaam te (a) ñaam \gll bug-aa-m te= a= ñaam want-DV-1s 3s 3s eat \trans I want him to eat. </gl>

The two first person singular strong clitics are semantically equivalent, and used in free variation. The free allomorph m of um is notable for being the only syllabic nasal in the language.

<gl fontsize=12> a buga (u)m ret \gll a bug-a (u)m ret 3 want-DV 1s go \trans He wants me to go. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> (u)m yer? \gll (u)m yer 1s drink \trans Can I drink? </gl>

The allomorph =n of in is not syllabic, and is enclitic on an immediately preceding vowel-final word.

<gl fontsize=12> a bugan ret \gll a bug-a=n ret 3 want-DV=1s go \trans He wants me to go. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> in ret a bugu \gll in ret a bug-u 1s go 3 want-FOC \trans He wants me to go. </gl>

Mixed marking

A third pattern of subject agreement is used with the conditional -ang, as well as constructions with the auxiliaries xan, fat, and bar. This third pattern is termed "mixed" as it makes use of agreement clitics taken from both of the other two agreement patterns. Note the absence of any overt marker for the first person singular.

Mixed subject marking:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1SG	Ø	1PL	i=
2SG	o=	2PL	nu=
3SG	a=	3PL	a=

Negation

Negation is expressed by verbal suffixes of the form -ee(r), -i(r), -ii. These allomorphs are not strictly phonologically conditioned. The negative suffix appears closer to the root than subject or object marking suffixes. The negative marker co-occurring with the singular subject agreement morphemes are given below. The third person agreement proclitic a= does not appear with negative verbs, unless the verb is also inflected for extraction or conditionality (see below). In all cases, the plural forms of negative-marked verbs differ from the third person singular only in the agreement proclitic (for 1st and 2nd pl.), and initial consonant mutation.

Negative marking:

Gloss	Sereer
1SG	-ii-m
2SG	-ir-o
3SG	-ee(r)

Finiteness

Verb forms are either finite or non-finite. A verb form is finite if it contains one of four morphemes: the "default vowel" -a, the extraction marker -u, the passive suffix -e, or the negative suffix -eer (or any of their allomorphs). The "default vowel" (glossed DV) appears in a variety of finite verb forms, and caries no consistent semantic information other than finiteness. It has an allomorph -aa when immediately preceding a vowel-intial suffix (specifically -um "1s subject", -o "2s subject -in "3s object", and ong "2s object"), due to the assimilation of these vowels to the preceding -a.

Non-finite forms

There are two types of non-finite verb forms; infinitives and progressive participles. The infinitive is the bare verb stem. The progressive participle is formed by affixing the suffix -aa (glossed PROG) to the stem, though when co-occuring with an object marker, the allomorph -a appears. Though object, passive, tense, and aspect suffixes can appear on the both types of non-finite verbs, subject agreement suffixes cannot, nor can they inflect for negation. Subject agreement proclitics (both basic and strong) can occur on non-finite forms, for example in subordinate clauses. Non-finite forms always exhibit initial consonant mutation to agree with their subject, if one exists. Non-finite verb forms can serve as the subject or object of clauses. They are often preceded by the non-finite particle o (glossed INF), though not obligatorily.

<gl fontsize=12> a mbar-a (o) maafir \gll a mbar-a o maaf-ir 3 must.pl-DV INF fall-RECIP \trans They had to wrestle </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> bugaam o jawaa maalo \gll bug-aa-m o jaw-aa maalo want-DV-1s INF cook-PROG rice \trans I want to be cooking rice OR I like cooking rice </gl>

Non-finite forms with strong agreement

Non-finite verb forms can appear with the strong agreement clitics...

Non-finite forms with mixed agreement

Non-finite forms are used with the mixed agreement pattern to indicate...

Imperative

Imperative forms exist for second person adressees only. The singular imperative is formed with the suffix -i, and the plural imperative with the suffixes -y-o. Note that object markers intervene between the suffixes -y and -o.

Imperative marking:

Gloss	Sereer
2SG	-i
2PL	-y-o

The forms discussed so far are given below for the verb fal "kick."

kick

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falaam	i mbala	1	faliim	i mbalee(r)
2	falaa	nu mbala	2	faliro	nu mbalee(r)
3	a fala	a mbala	3	falee(r)	mbalee(r)
Infinitive	fal	mbal
Prog. Part.	falaa	mbalaa
Imperative	fali	mbalyo

Object Marking

Incorporated object pronouns ("object markers") exist as suffixes for singular objects. These suffixes directly precede the subject suffix, if one present.

The first person singular object marker is -aam after a consonant and -xam after a vowel.

kick me

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	—	—	1	—	—
2	falaxamo	nu mbalaxam	2	faliraamo	nu mbaliraam
3	a falaxam	a mbalaxam	3	faliraam	mbaliraam
Infinitive	falaam	mbalaam
Prog. Part.	falaxam	mbalaxam
Imperative	falaam	mbalyaamo

The second person singular object marker is -(o)ng. The form that appears with a 1st singular subject and 2nd singular object (-aaxong) is idiosyncratic.

kick you

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falaaxong	i mbalaang	1	falirong	i mbalirang
2	—	—	2	—	—
3	a falaang	a mbalaang	3	falirang	mbalirang
Infinitive	falong	mbalong
Prog. Part.	falang	mbalang
Imperative	—	—

The third person singular object marker is -(i)n. Note the allomorphs of the imperative suffixes that occur when alongside this object marker.

kick him

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falaanum	i mbalaan	1	falinum	i mbaliran
2	falaano	nu mbalaan	2	falino	nu mbaliran
3	a falaan	a mbalaan	3	faliran	mbaliran
Infinitive	falin	mbalin
Prog. Part.	falan	mbalan
Imperative	faleen	(mbalyeeno)

Free Object Pronouns

Free pronouns exist in addition to the incorporated object pronouns (object markers) discussed above.

Free object pronouns:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1SG	mi'	1PL	'in(o)
2SG	wo'	2PL	nuun
3SG	ten	3PL	den(o)

These free pronouns can be used in either object or subject position. When used as a subject, they do not take the place of the subject agreement clitic or suffix, as these are truly agreement markers. When used as an object, these free pronouns do take the place of the object markers, as the object markers are truly incorporated pronouns. Use of a free pronoun is the only way to express a plural pronominal object. For singular objects, if there is only one object, the object suffix must be used. When there are multiple singular objects, one must be represented as an object suffix and the rest must be free pronouns.

Reflexives

Reflexivity is indicated by use of the noun xoox (sg.) a qoox (pl.) "head/self," along with the appropriate possessor (possessive adjective for a singular participant, free pronoun in genitive position for a plural participant). It is in general preceded by the animate object marking preposition a.

Reflexive pronouns:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1SG	xoox es	1PL	a qoox 'in
2SG	xoox of	2PL	a qoox nuun
3SG	xoox um	3PL	a qoox den

Position of object pronouns

In complex clauses, such as those involving the verb bug "want" or ɓaat "do again," the object pronoun, whether incorporated (object marker), or free, can appear on (after) either the higher or lower verb. The former configuration (on/after the higher verb) is generally preferred, despite the fact that the object is truly that of the lower verb.

<gl fontsize=12> bugaam o warong \gll bug-aa-m o war-ong want-DV-1s INF kill-2s.obj \trans I want to kill you. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> bugaaxong o war \gll bug-aaxong o war want-DV.1s.sub+2s.obj INF kill \trans I want to kill you. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> ɓaataa (o) foon a 'in \gll ɓaat-a-o o foon a 'in add-DV-2s INF kiss OBJ 1p \trans You kiss us again. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> ɓaataa (a) 'in o foon \gll ɓaat-a-o (a) 'in o foon add-DV-2s obj 1pl INF kiss \trans You kiss us again. </gl>

This pattern of "object shift" is also attested with the verbs faañ 'refuse', weec 'forget', and waag 'know how to, be able to'. Examples are shown below:

<gl fontsize=12> a waaga o ñaamin \gll a waag-a o ñaam-in 3 know.how-DV INF eat-3s.obj \trans He knows how to eat it. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a waagaan o ñaam \gll a waag-aa-n o ñaam 3 know.how-DV-3s.obj INF eat \trans He knows how to eat it. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a weeca (o) foonong \gll a weec-a o foon-ong 3 forget-DV INF kiss-2s.obj \trans He forgot to kiss you. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a weecaang o foon \gll a weec-aa-ng o foon 3 forget-DV-2s.obj INF kiss \trans He forgot to kiss you. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a faaña o waraam \gll a faañ-a o war-aam 3 refuse-DV INF kill-1s.obj \trans He refused to kill me </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a faañaxam o waraam \gll a faañ-a-xam o war 3 refuse-DV-1s.obj INF kill \trans He refused to kill me </gl>

When two of these verbs are present followed by another verb, it is possible for the object pronoun to shift to any of them:

<gl fontsize=12> a buga (o) waag o ñaamin \gll a bug-a o waag o ñaam-in 3 want-DV INF know.how INF eat-3s.obj \trans He wants to know how to eat it. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a buga (o) waagin o ñaam \gll a bug-a o waag-in o ñaam 3 want-DV INF know.how-3s.obj INF eat \trans He wants to know how to eat it. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a bugaan o waag o ñaam \gll a bug-aa-n o waag o ñaam 3 want-DV-3s.obj INF know.how INF eat \trans He wants to know how to eat it. </gl>

Focus extraction marking

In cases of focus extraction, different forms of the verb appear. These are marked by the suffix -u, which has a zero allomorph when preceding a vowel-initial suffix. This suffix -u takes the place of the default vowel -a. In addition to subject marking, these extraction forms of the verb can include negative marking and object marking. In cases of subject extraction, the verb shows no agreement affixes (though it does exhibit the proper mutation for number agreement). The rows marked with "S" in the paradigms below indicate these subject-extraction forms. When some other element is extracted, the verb does exhibit subject agreement. Note that non-finite forms cannot take extraction morphology.

kick (w/ extraction)

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falum	i mbalu	1	faleerum	i mbaleeru
2	falo	nu mbalu	2	faleero	nu mbaleeru
3	a falu	a mbalu	3	a faleeru	a mbaleeru
S	falu	mbalu	S	faleeru	mbaleeru

kick me (w/ extraction)

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	—	—	1	—	—
2	falaxamo	nu mbalaxam	2	faleeraxamo	nu mbaleeraxam
3	a falaxam	a mbalaxam	3	a faleeraxam	a mbaleeraxam
S	falaxam	mbalaxam	S	faleeraxam	mbaleeraxam

kick you (w/ extraction)

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falong	i mbalong	1	faleerong	i mbaleerong
2	—	—	2	—	—
3	a falong	a mbalong	3	a faleerong	a mbaleerong
S	falong	mbalong	S	faleerong	mbalelerong

kick him (w/ extraction)

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falanum	i mbalun	1	faleeranum	i mbaleerun
2	falano	nu mbalun	2	faleerano	nu mbaleerun
3	a falun	a mbalun	3	a faleerun	a mbaleerun
S	falun	mbalun	S	faleerun	mbaleerun

Passive

The passive forms of the verb are formed with the suffix -(e)e. The passive infinitive if marked by the suffix -el, and the passive progressive participle by -eel. Object markers cannot appear on passive forms of the verb. Any object that is present must be expressed as a free pronoun or NP. Negative forms of passive verbs take the suffix -aand, which co-occurs with the passive suffix only in first and second singular forms. When the suffix -aand appears word finally, it generally appears as the allomorph -aan, though -aand is marginally acceptable word-finally.

kick

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	faleem	i mbale	1	falaandeem	i mbalaan(d)
2	falee	nu mbale	2	falaandee	nu mbalaan(d)
3	a fale	a mbale	3	falaan(d)	mbalaan(d)
Infinitive	falel	mbalel
Prog. Part.	faleel	mbaleel
Imperative	—	—

There are no imperative passive forms. To express an imperative passive meaning, the auxiliary fat must be used.

<gl fontsize=12> fat o nafel \gll fat o= naf-el OBLIG 2s hit-PASS.INF \trans Get hit! ("You must be hit") </gl>

Passive forms can appear in cases of focus extraction, but exhibit no distinct marking compared to the non-extraction forms.

(non-extracted)

<gl fontsize=12> nafteem no mbind ne \gll naf-t-ee-m no mbind n-e hit-APPL-PASS-1s in house DET-DEF \trans I was hit in the house. </gl>

(extracted)

<gl fontsize=12> no mbind ne nafteem \gll no mbind n-e naf-t-ee-m in house DET-DEF hit-APPL-PASS-1s \trans In the house I was hit. </gl>

Even the absence of the third person proclitic a= is shared by both non-extraction and (non-subject) extraction forms of negative passive verbs, whereas in all active paradigms, the negative extraction form has a= in contrast to the negative non-extraction form.

Active negative focus construction, ungrammatical without a=

<gl fontsize=12> no mbind ne a falteeru 'in \gll no mbind n-e a= fal-t-eer-u 'in in house DET-DEF 3 kick-APPL-NEG-FOC us \trans In the house he didn't kick us </gl>

Passive negative focus construction, ungrammatical with a=

<gl fontsize=12> no mbind ne falaand \gll no mbind n-e fal-aand in house DET-DEF kick-PASS.NEG(.FOC) \trans In the house he wasn't kicked </gl>

Relative marking

Relative Clauses include relativized forms of the verb, marked with the suffix -(ii)(n)a. This suffix combines with subject and object markers very idiosyncratically. These relative forms appear in two principle contexts: relative clauses, and following y- words (e.g. ye, ya, yaaga) "when/while." In a subject-headed relative clause (e.g. 'the man that kicked'), no subject agreement is present. These forms are given in the tables below in the rows marked "S".

that (__) kick(s)

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	faluuma	i mbalna	1	faleeruuma	i mbaleerna
2	faloona	nu mbalna	2	faleeroona	nu mbaleerna
3	te falna	de mbalna	3	te faleerna	de mbaleerna
S	falna	mbalna	S	faleerna	mbaleerna

Relative verb forms including object markers are given below:

that/when (__) kick(s) me

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	—	—	1	—	—
2	falaxoona	nu mbalaxama	2	(faleeraxoona)	(nu mbaleeraxama)
3	te falaxama	de mbalaxama	3	(te faleeraxama)	(de mbaleeraxama)
S	falaxama	mbalaxama	S	faleeraxama	mbaleeraxama

that/when (__) kick(s) you

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	in faloonga	i mbaloonga	1	(in faleeroonga)	(i mbaleeroonga)
2	—	—	2	—	—
3	te faloonga	de mbaloonga	3	(te faleeroonga)	(de mbaleeroonga)
S	faloonga	mbaloonga	S	faleeroonga	mbaleeroonga

that/when (__) kick(s) him

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falanuuma	i mbaluuna	1	(faleeranuuma)	(i mbaleeruuna)
2	falanoona	nu mbaluuna	2	(faleeranoona)	(nu mbaleeruuna)
3	te faluuna	de mbaluuna	3	(te faleeruuna)	(de mbaleeruuna)
S	faluuna	mbaluuna	S	faleeruuna	mbaleeruuna

Passive verb forms can also be relativized.

that/when (__) am/are/is kicked

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	faleema	i mbaleena	1	falaandeema	i mbalaandeena
2	falee'oona	nu mbaleena	2	falaandeena	nu mbalaandeena
3	te faleena	de mbaleena	3	te falaandeena	de mbalaandeena
S	faleena	mbaleena	S	falaandeena	mbalaandeena

The allomorph -iina of the relative suffix appears when co-occuring with the tense/aspect suffixes -' (past), -k (future), and -eeg (past imperfect) (see below).

Conditional marking

The suffix -ang is used to express conditionality (o falanga "if you kick"). Conditional verbs take the "mixed" subject agreement pattern. These verb forms cannot appear in isolation, and require the presence of some other clause to indicate what happens if the condition is met.

if (__) kick(s)

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falanga	i mbalanga	1	falangee	i mbalangee
2	o falanga	nu mbalanga	2	o falangee	nu mbalangee
3	a falanga	a mbalanga	3	a falangee	a mbalangee

Conditional forms can appear with object marking:

if (__) kick(s) me

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	—	—	1	—	—
2	o falangaam	nu mbalangaam	2	o falangiraam	nu mbalangiraam
3	a falangaam	a mbalangaam	3	a falangiraam	a mbalangiraam

if (__) kick(s) you

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falangang	i mbalangang	1	falangirang	i mbalangirang
2	—	—	2	—	—
3	a falangang	a mbalangang	3	a falangirang	a mbalangirang

if (__) kick(s) him

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falangan	i mbalangan	1	falangiran	i mbalangiran
2	o falangan	nu mbalangan	2	o falangiran	nu mbalangiran
3	a falangan	a mbalangan	3	a falangiran	a mbalangiran

And in the passive:

if (__) am/are/is kicked

Positive	sg.	pl.	Negative	sg.	pl.
1	falangee	i mbalangee	1	falangaan(d)	i mbalangaan(d)
2	o falangee	nu mbalangee	2	o falangaan(d)	nu mbalangaan(d)
3	a falangee	a mbalangee	3	a falangaan(d)	a mbalangaan(d)

Note that without negation, the conditional passive paradigm is homophonous with the conditional active negative paradigm.

Tense and aspect

All examples given thus far have been in a "default" tense and aspect, marked by the suffix -a. The suffix -a is often interpreted as a present tense, perfective aspect, but when occurring with other tense and aspect auxiliaries and/or suffixes, these readings may be overwritten.

There are three tense/aspect suffixes which attach directly after the stem. All of the finite forms listed above can take these tense/aspect suffixes, as can the infinitive. The progressive participle cannot take these suffixes.

Tense/aspect suffixes:

Gloss	Sereer
Past	-'
Future	-k
Past imperfect	-eeg
Past conditional	-k-eeg

The future suffix -k is transparently related to the itive extension -ik. However, the two suffixes are distinct. It is possible for them to co-occur. -' cannot co-occur with either -k or -eeg.

The past conditional suffix -k-eeg ("would have __") is composed of the future and past imperfect suffixes, but as its meaning is very much non-compositional given the meaning of these two suffixes, it would be possible to analyze -keeg as a single suffix.

<gl fontsize=12> ret'angee maaga, xonkeegaam \gll ret-'-ang-ee m-aaga xon-keeg-aa-m go-PST-if-NEG there die-PST.COND-DV-1s \trans If I hadn't gone there, I would have died. </gl>

The precise semantics of these tense/aspect affixes is discussed in Tense and Aspect. The first person singular forms of fal "kick" are given below with each of these tense/aspect suffixes:

Basic subject marking:

Gloss	Sereer
I kicked	fal'aam
I will kick	falkaam
I was kicking	faleegaam
I would have kicked	falkeegaam

When appearing on an infinitive verb form, the final tense/aspect suffix exhibits an allomorph with an extra vowel: -'u, -ik, -eegu. The u present in these allomorphs is not to be confused with the extraction marker -u.

Infinitive forms with tense/aspect marking:

Gloss	Sereer
to have kicked	fal'u
to go kick	falik
to have been kicking	faleegu
to have gone to kick	fal'ik

Complex Constructions

In addition to the "tenses" described above, there are a number of complex TAM (tense, aspect, mood) constructions formed by the use of various auxiliaries, generally consisting of an auxiliary followed by a non-finite verb form.

The copula -xe

The copula -xe is inflected irregularly for subject agreement, and can take no other inflection. Unlike the agreement proclitics for main verbs, the agreement markers on -xe are synchronically best analyzed as prefixes, as they form a single stress-domain with their base, from which proclitics are excluded. Compare in= fí' "I (str.) do" with ín-we "we are". In this second example, there is regular penultimate stress on the prefix, but in the first, penultimate stress is impossible, as the proclitic is excluded from the domain of stress assignment. For the second singular, the forms wexe and woxe are in free variation, though wexe seems to occur much more frequently.

The copula -xe:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
1SG	me-xe	1PL	in-we
2SG	we-xe / wo-xe	2PL	nun-we
3SG	a-xe	3PL	a-we

These forms are historically derived from the combination of a free pronoun and a relative operator (thus historically, *in we mbal-aa "we who (are) kicking"). A vestige of this origin is the fact that the copula has a rarely encountered alternate form xa/wa (e.g. in the phrase awa maa "they are fine"). There do not exist any other forms of the copula based on other forms of the relative pronoun (-aaga, -eek, etc.).

This copular verb can appear in a construction whereby a lexical verb form directly follows it. Most commonly, it is followed by a progressive participle, as shown in <glr id="eat.prog"/>.

<gl id="eat.prog"fontsize=12> mexe ñaamaa maalo \gll me= xe ñaam -aa 1s= COP eat -PROG \trans I am eating. (101) </gl>

However, it is also possible for finite verbs to occur in this position as seen in <glr id="eat.finite"/>, as well as with bare roots in clause-linking constructions, shown in <glr id="eat.bare"/>. These constructions cannot contain negation, because xe is a positive polarity auxiliary.

<gl id="eat.finite"fontsize=12> wil es axe ɓalga xaye \gll wil es a= xe ɓalig -a xaye hair 3POSS 3= COP be.black -DV today \trans My hair is black today. (269) </gl>

<gl id="eat.bare"fontsize=12> axe moof \gll a= xe moof 3= COP be.seated \trans He is seated. (310a) </gl>

Furthermore, this finite main verbs can be in the past progressive suffix, as shown in <glr id="eat.pst.prog"/>. No other tense/aspect affixes, the past tense -' or the future tense -ik can appear on a verb in this construction. It is likely that the acceptability of xe with the past progressive is because of its aspectual content, in spite of its tense marking.

<gl id="eat.pst.prog"fontsize=12> axe jaweega \gll a= xe jaw -eeg -a 3= COP cook -P.IMP -DV \trans He was cooking. (140) </gl>

Most constructions that contain xe are translated as semantically equivalent to their unmarked counterparts. However, complex constructions have shown that ………

The auxiliaries xan, fat, and bar

The auxiliaries xan (future), fat (obligation), and bar (prohibition) occur with any non-finite verb form. These constructions make use of "mixed" subject agreement marking pattern.

xan

The auxiliary xan is used to indicate future tense. The semantic distinctions between xan and the tense/aspect suffix -k are discussed in Tense and Aspect.

<gl fontsize=12> xan o moof \gll xan o= moof FUT 2s sit \trans You will sit. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> xan nu ngimaa \gll xan nu= ngim-aa FUT 2p sing.pl-PROG \trans You all will be singing. </gl>

There exists an optional variant xam when agreeing with a first person singular subject, though this is dispreferred to xan.

<gl fontsize=12> xam/xan ga'in \gll xam/xan ga'-in FUT see-3s.obj \trans I'll see him. </gl>

fat

The auxiliary fat is used to express obligation.

<gl fontsize=12> fat o ret \gll fat o= ret OBLIG 2s go \trans You have to go. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> fat i njaw-aa \gll fat i= njaw OBLIG 1p cook.pl \trans We have to be cooking. </gl>

bar

The auxiliary bar is used to express prohibition. It can occur with any subject, but is most commonly found with second person subjects.

<gl fontsize=12> bar o nafan \gll bar o= naf-a-n PROHIB 2s hit-PROG-3s.obj \trans Don't be hitting him! </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> bar i ndet \gll bar i= ndet PROHIB 1p go.pl \trans Let's not go. </gl>

With a second singular subject, an optional abbreviated form exists in which the final r of the auxiliary and the clitic o is omitted.

<gl fontsize=12> ba lool \gll ba lool OBLIG.2s cry \trans Don't cry! </gl>

The auxiliary kaa

The auxiliary kaa (glossed VFM, see kaa) is used in combination with any non-finite verb form along with the strong agreement pattern. A sample paradigm with a bare infinitive is given below:

Kaa focus construction:

Gloss	Sereer	Gloss	Sereer
I did kick	kaam fal	We did kick	kaa i mbal
You (sg.) did kick	kaa (o) fal	You (pl.) did kick	kaa nu mbal
He did kick	kaa te fal	They did kick	kaa de mbal

This construction expresses verum focus. For more information regarding the semantics of this construction, see Extraction or Focus.

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> kaa te garaa \gll kaa te gar-aa VFM 3s come-PROG \trans He is coming. </gl>

The first person singular form, kaam is slightly idiosyncratic, but can be though of as a contraction of kaa m, the expected form.

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> kaam doxin'u a Samba oxeɗ \gll kaa=m doxin-'u a Samba o-xed VFM=1s lend-PST OBJ Samba ring \trans I did give Samba a ring. </gl>

The auxiliary naa

The auxiliary naa (glossed FIN) is used in conjunction with a progressive participle in environments of extraction. Essentially, its sole purpose is to contribute finiteness, so that the non-finite progressive participle may appear in these situations.

It is used in any position in which a relative form of a verb can appear.

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> okoor oxe naa nafang \gll o-koor ox-e naa naf-a-ng man DET-DEF FIN hit-PROG-2s.obj \trans The man who is hitting you </gl>

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> ke naa jangneel a refa... \gll k-e naa jangn-eel a ref-a THING-DEF FIN teach-PASS.PROG 3 be-DV \trans What is being taught is... </gl>

Use of this construction is the only way to express a progressive meaning in a relative clause. Thus, the above two examples can be thought of as progressive versions of the following two examples:

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> okoor oxe nafoonga \gll o-koor ox-e naf-oong-a man DET-DEF hit-2s.obj-REL \trans The man who hit you </gl>

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> ke jangneena a refa... \gll k-e jangn-ee-na a ref-a THING-DEF teach-PASS-REL 3 be-DV \trans What is taught is... </gl>

It appears also in cases of focus extraction:

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> wo' fo mi' naa ñaamaa \wo' fo mi' naa ñaam-aa you and I FIN eat-PROG \trans It's you and I who are eating. </gl>

Including questions:

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> 'an naa ñaamaa \gll 'an naa ñaam-aa who FIN eat-PROG \trans Who is eating? </gl>

Verb Paradigm

Full paradigms for the verb fal "kick" are given below in the perfect tense. The extraction forms given are for non-subject extraction— the subject extraction forms are simply the third person forms without the proclitic a=. The relativized third person forms are those used in object relativization ("the man that he kicked")— the subject relativization forms ("the man that kicked") simply lack the proclitic te= / de=.

"Kick", perfect tense, no object

	1st singular	2nd singular	3rd singular	1st plural	2nd plural	3rd plural
default	falaam	fala	a fala	i mbala	nu mbala	a mbala
extracted	falum	falo	a falu	i mbalu	nu mbalu	a mbalu
conditional	falanga	o falanga	a falanga	i mbalanga	nu mbalanga	a mbalanga
relative	faluuma	faloona	te falna	i mbalna	nu mbalna	de mbalna
default neg.	faliim	faliro	falee(r)	i mbalee(r)	nu mbalee(r)	mbalee(r)
extracted neg.	faleerum	faleero	a faleeru	i mbaleeru	nu mbaleeru	a mbaleeru
conditional neg.	falangee	o falangee	a falangee	i mbalangee	nu mbalangee	a mbalangee
relative neg.	faleeruuma	faleeroona	te faleerna	i mbaleerna	nu mbaleerna	de mbaleerna
infinitive	fal			mbal
prog. part.	falaa			mbalaa
imperative	fali			falyo

"Kick me", perfect tense

	1st singular	2nd singular	3rd singular	1st plural	2nd plural	3rd plural
default	—	falaxamo	a falaxam	—	nu mbalaxam	a mbalaxam
extracted	—	falaxamo	a falaxam	—	nu mbalaxam	a mbalaxam
conditional	—	o falangaam	a falangaam	—	nu mbalangaam	a mbalangaam
relative	—	falaxoona	te falaxama	—	nu mbalaxama	de mbalaxama
default neg.	—	faliraamo	faliraam	—	nu mbaliraam	a mbaliraam
extracted neg.	—	faleeraxamo	a faleeraxam	—	nu mbaleeraxam	a mbaleeraxam
conditional neg.	—	o falangiraam	a falangiraam	—	nu mbalangiraam	a mbalangiraam
relative neg.	—	(faleeraxoona)	te faleeraxama	—	nu mbaleeraxama	de mbaleeraxama
infinitive	falaam			mbalaam
prog. part.	falaxam			mbalaxam
imperative	falaam			mbalyaamo

"Kick you", perfect tense

	1st singular	2nd singular	3rd singular	1st plural	2nd plural	3rd plural
default	falaaxong	—	a falaang	i mbalaang	—	a mbalaang
extracted	falong	—	a falong	i mbalong	—	a mbalong
conditional	falangang	—	a falangang	i mbalangang	—	a mbalangang
relative	in faloonga	—	te faloonga	i mbaloonga	—	de mbaloonga
default neg.	falirong	—	falirang	i mbalirang	—	mbalirang
extracted neg.	faleerong	—	a faleerong	i mbaleerong	—	a mbaleerong
conditional neg.	falangirang	—	a falangirang	i mbalangirang	—	a mbalangirang
relative neg.	in faleeroonga	—	te faleeroonga	i mbaleeroonga	—	de mbaleeroonga
infinitive	falong			mbalong
prog. part.	falang			mbalang
imperative	—			—

"Kick him", perfect tense

	1st singular	2nd singular	3rd singular	1st plural	2nd plural	3rd plural
default	falaanum	falaano	a falaan	i mbalaan	nu mbalaan	a mbalaan
extracted	falanum	falano	a falun	i mbalun	nu mbalun	a mbalun
conditional	falangan	o falangan	a falangan	i mbalangan	nu mbalangan	a mbalangan
relative	falanuuma	falanoona	te faluuna	i mbaluuna	nu mbaluuna	de mbaluuna
default neg.	falinum	falino	faliran	i mbaliran	nu mbaliran	mbaliran
extracted neg.	faleeranum	faleerano	a faleerun	i mbaleerun	nu mbaleerun	a mbaleerun
conditional neg.	falangiran	o falangiran	a falangiran	i mbalangiran	nu mbalangiran	a mbalangiran
relative neg.	(faleeranuuma)	(faleeranoona)	te faleeruuna	(i mbaleeruuna)	(nu mbaleeruuna)	de mbaleeruuna
infinitive	falin			mbalin
prog. part.	falan			mbalan
imperative	faleen			(mbalyeeno)

"Be kicked", perfect tense

	1st singular	2nd singular	3rd singular	1st plural	2nd plural	3rd plural
default	faleem	falee	a fale	i mbale	nu mbale	a mbale
extracted	faleem	falee	a fale	i mbale	nu mbale	a mbale
conditional	falangee	o falangee	a falangee	i mbalangee	nu mbalangee	a mbalangee
relative	faleema	falee'oona	te faleena	i mbaleena	nu mbaleena	de mbaleena
default neg.	falaandeem	falaandee	falaan(d)	i mbalaan(d)	nu mbalaan(d)	mbalaan(d)
extracted neg.	falaandeem	falaandee	falaan(d)	i mbalaan(d)	nu mbalaan(d)	falaan(d)
conditional neg.	falangaan(d)	o falangaan(d)	a falangaan(d)	i mbalangaan(d)	nu mbalangaan(d)	a mbalangaan(d)
relative neg.	falaandeema	falaandeena	te falaandeena	i mbalaandeena	nu mbalaandeena	de mbalaandeena
infinitive	falel			mbalel
prog. part.	faleel			mbaleel
imperative	—			—