Difference between revisions of "Inflectional Verbal Morphology"

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Verbs in Sereer are inflected for person and number agreement, negation, tense and aspect, and a number of other categories. Inflectional morphemes are strictly ordered as follows:
−
==Person Marking==
  
   
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
 +
{| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #000" cellpadding="4"
−
|+ '''to kick'''
 
−
! !! sg. !! pl.
 
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
−
| Infinitive || fal || mbal
  
  +
Auxiliary
  +
|
  +
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
Subject clitic
  +
|
  +
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
ROOT
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
Extensions
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
Tense
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
Past imperfect
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
Conditional "if"
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
Negation
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
Finiteness
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
Object
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
Subject
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
Relativization
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
−
| Present Participle || falaa || mbalaa
  
  +
[[#The copula -xe|-xe]] <br>
  +
[[#The auxiliaries xan, fat, and bar|xan, fat, bar]] <br>
  +
[[#The auxiliary kaa|kaa]] <br>
  +
[[#The auxiliary naa|naa]] <br>
  +
|
  +
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
[[#Subject Marking|(i)n, (u)m, i<br>
  +
o, nu<br>
  +
a, te, de]]
  +
|
  +
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
[[Derivational Verbal Morphology|many]]
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
[[#Tense and aspect|-', -k]]
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
[[#Tense and aspect|-eeg]]
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
[[#Conditional marking|-ang]]
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
[[#Negation|-ee(r), -ir, -(i)i]]
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
[[#Finiteness|-a]] <br>
  +
[[#Focus extraction marking|-u]] <br>
  +
[[#Passive|-e, -el, -eel]] <br>
  +
[[#Non-finite forms|-aa]]
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
[[#Object Marking|-aam/-xam <br>
  +
-(o)ng <br>
  +
-(i)n]]
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
[[#Subject Marking|-(u)m <br>
  +
-(o)]]
  +
| style="border-style: solid; border-width: 1px"|
  +
[[#Relative marking|-(ii)(n)a]]
  +
|}
  +
  +
  +
[[#Verb Paradigm]]
  +
  +
==Subject Marking==
  +
  +
Sereer verbs agree in person and number with their subject. The language exhibits three subject agreement patterns, the use of which depends on morphological factors discussed below. In addition to these suffixes and clitics, number agreement is indicated by initial consonant mutation, with unmutated verb forms agreeing with singular subjects, and nasal grade verb forms agreeing with plural subjects.
  +
  +
===Basic marking===
  +
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ Basic subject marking:
  +
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
|-
  
|-
−
| Imperative || fali || mbalyo
 +
| 1SG || -(u)m || 1PL || i=
 
|-
  
|-
−
| '''Positive''' || ||
+
| 2SG || -(o) || 2PL || nu=
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 1 || falaam || i mbala
 +
| 3SG || a= || 3PL || a=
 
|-
  
|-
  +
|}
−
| 2 || fala || nu mbala
  
  +
  +
The vowels of the 1st and 2nd singular subject suffixes are assimilated to a preceding vowel (specifically the 'default vowel' ''-a'' and the passive ''-e''), yielding a long vowel.
  +
  +
===Strong marking===
  +
  +
The set of "strong" subject markers is used in contexts such as subordinate clauses, relative clauses, and switch-referent situations.
  +
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ "Strong" subject marking:
  +
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 3 || a fala || a mbala
 +
| 1SG || in/=n, (u)m || 1PL || i=
 
|-
  
|-
−
| '''Negative''' || ||
+
| 2SG || o= || 2PL || nu=
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 1 || faliim || i mbalee(r)
 +
| 3SG || te= || 3PL || de=
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 2 || faliro || nu mbalee(r)
  
−
|-
  
−
| 3 || falee(r) || mbalee(r)
  
 
|}
  
|}
   
  +
The third person strong clitics ''te='' and ''de='' can optionally co-occur with the basic third person clitic ''a='', though this configuration surfaces relatively infrequently.
−
====Subject Marking====
  
−
Sereer verbs agree with subject, even if a subject is overtly expressed elsewhere in the sentence. Singular and plural forms for first, second, and third person are all distinguished from each other. The only distinguishing characteristic between singular and plural third person, however, is the [[Inflectional Verbal Morphology#Stem-initial consonant mutation|stem-initial consonant mutation]] of the verb stem. Initial consonant mutation occurs with all plural subjects, regardless of subject agreement type.
 
   
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
−
The following table shows the basic subject marking paradigm, which occurs when no pre-verbal morphology is present:
  
  +
bugaam te (a) ñaam
  +
\gll bug-aa-m te= a= ñaam
  +
want-DV-1s 3s 3s eat
  +
\trans I want him to eat.
  +
</gl>
   
  +
The two first person singular strong clitics are semantically equivalent, and used in free variation. The free allomorph ''m'' of ''um'' is notable for being the only syllabic nasal in the language.
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
  +
−
|+ Basic subject marking:
 
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
a buga (u)m ret
  +
\gll a bug-a (u)m ret
  +
3 want-DV 1s go
  +
\trans He wants me to go.
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
(u)m yer?
  +
\gll (u)m yer
  +
1s drink
  +
\trans Can I drink?
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
The allomorph ''=n'' of ''in'' is not syllabic, and is enclitic on an immediately preceding vowel-final word.
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
a bugan ret
  +
\gll a bug-a=n ret
  +
3 want-DV=1s go
  +
\trans He wants me to go.
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
in ret a bugu
  +
\gll in ret a bug-u
  +
1s go 3 want-FOC
  +
\trans He wants me to go.
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
===Mixed marking===
  +
  +
A third pattern of subject agreement is used with the conditional ''-ang'', as well as constructions with the auxiliaries ''xan'', ''fat'', and ''bar''. This third pattern is termed "mixed" as it makes use of agreement clitics taken from both of the other two agreement patterns. Note the absence of any overt marker for the first person singular.
  +
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ Mixed subject marking:
 
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 1SG || -m || 1PL || i-[mut]
 +
| 1SG || Ø || 1PL || i=
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 2SG || -' || 2PL || nu-[mut]
 +
| 2SG || o= || 2PL || nu=
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 3SG || a- || 3PL || a-[mut]
 +
| 3SG || a= || 3PL || a=
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
  +
==Negation==
−
This subject marking occurs with the proximal, past, and past progressive tenses (see Tense, below). For example, the proximal tense:
  
   
  +
Negation is expressed by verbal suffixes of the form ''-ee(r), -i(r), -ii''. These allomorphs are not strictly phonologically conditioned. The negative suffix appears closer to the root than subject or object marking suffixes. The negative marker co-occurring with the singular subject agreement morphemes are given below. The third person agreement proclitic ''a='' does not appear with negative verbs, unless the verb is also inflected for extraction or conditionality (see below). In all cases, the plural forms of negative-marked verbs differ from the third person singular only in the agreement proclitic (for 1st and 2nd pl.), and initial consonant mutation.
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
  +
−
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ Negative marking:
  +
! Gloss !! Sereer !!
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| 1SG || -ii-m
−
| 1sg- 'I run' || ʄuufaa'''m''' || 1pl- 'we run' || '''iƈ'''uufaa
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| 2SG || -ir-o
−
| 2sg- 'you run' || ʄuufaa''''''' || 2pl- 'you all run' || '''nuƈ'''uufaa
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| 3SG || -ee(r)
−
| 3sg- 'he runs' || '''a'''ʄuufaa || 3pl- 'they run' || '''aƈ'''uufaa
  
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
  +
==Finiteness==
−
Subject agreement varies, however, and is conditioned (at least) by clause type, [[Negation|negation]], focus, and presence or absence of auxiliaries. Most subject agreement morphemes within these paradigms are prefixes.
  
   
  +
Verb forms are either finite or non-finite. A verb form is finite if it contains one of four morphemes: the "default vowel" ''-a'', the extraction marker ''-u'', the passive suffix ''-e'', or the negative suffix ''-eer'' (or any of their allomorphs). The "default vowel" (glossed DV) appears in a variety of finite verb forms, and caries no consistent semantic information other than finiteness. It has an allomorph ''-aa'' when immediately preceding a vowel-intial suffix (specifically ''-um'' "1s subject", ''-o'' "2s subject ''-in'' "3s object", and ''ong'' "2s object"), due to the assimilation of these vowels to the preceding ''-a''.
−
When the preverbal aspect marker ''xe''/''we'' 'progressive' is present, a different subject marking paradigm occurs:
  
   
  +
===Non-finite forms===
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
  +
−
|+ Subject marking with xe/we:
 
  +
There are two types of non-finite verb forms; infinitives and progressive participles. The infinitive is the bare verb stem. The progressive participle is formed by affixing the suffix ''-aa'' (glossed PROG) to the stem, though when co-occuring with an [[#Object Marking|object marker]], the allomorph ''-a'' appears. Though object, passive, tense, and aspect suffixes can appear on the both types of non-finite verbs, subject agreement suffixes cannot, nor can they inflect for negation. Subject agreement proclitics (both basic and strong) can occur on non-finite forms, for example in subordinate clauses. Non-finite forms always exhibit initial consonant mutation to agree with their subject, if one exists. Non-finite verb forms can serve as the subject or object of clauses. They are often preceded by the non-finite particle ''o'' (glossed INF), though not obligatorily.
−
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
a mbar-a (o) maafir
  +
\gll a mbar-a o maaf-ir
  +
3 must.pl-DV INF fall-RECIP
  +
\trans They had to wrestle
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
bugaam o jawaa maalo
  +
\gll bug-aa-m o jaw-aa maalo
  +
want-DV-1s INF cook-PROG rice
  +
\trans I want to be cooking rice OR I like cooking rice
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
====Non-finite forms with strong agreement====
  +
  +
Non-finite verb forms can appear with the strong agreement clitics...
  +
  +
====Non-finite forms with mixed agreement====
  +
  +
Non-finite forms are used with the mixed agreement pattern to indicate...
  +
  +
==Imperative==
  +
  +
Imperative forms exist for second person adressees only. The singular imperative is formed with the suffix ''-i'', and the plural imperative with the suffixes ''-y-o''. Note that [[#Object marking|object markers]] intervene between the suffixes ''-y'' and ''-o''.
  +
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ Imperative marking:
  +
! Gloss !! Sereer !!
 
|-
  
|-
−
| || -xe || || -we
+
| 2SG || -i
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 1SG || me- || 1PL || in-
 +
| 2PL || -y-o
 
|-
  
|-
  +
|}
−
| 2SG || we- || 2PL || nuun-
  
  +
  +
The forms discussed so far are given below for the verb ''fal'' "kick."
  +
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ '''kick'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 3SG || a- || 3PL || a-
 +
| '''1''' || falaam || i mbala || '''1''' || faliim || i mbalee(r)
  +
|-
  +
| '''2''' || falaa || nu mbala || '''2''' || faliro || nu mbalee(r)
  +
|-
  +
| '''3''' || a fala || a mbala || '''3''' || falee(r) || mbalee(r)
  +
|-
  +
| '''Infinitive''' || fal || mbal
  +
|-
  +
| '''Prog. Part.''' || falaa || mbalaa
  +
|-
  +
| '''Imperative''' || fali || mbalyo
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
  +
==Object Marking==
−
For example, with the verb ''ʄuuf'', 'run':
  
   
  +
Incorporated object pronouns ("object markers") exist as suffixes for singular objects. These suffixes directly precede the subject suffix, if one present.
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
  +
−
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
  +
The first person singular object marker is ''-aam'' after a consonant and ''-xam'' after a vowel.
  +
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ '''kick me'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 1sg- 'I am running' || '''mexe''' ʄuufaa || 1pl- 'we were running' || '''inwe ƈ'''uufaa
 +
| '''1''' || — || — || '''1''' || — || —
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| '''2''' || falaxamo || nu mbalaxam || '''2''' || faliraamo || nu mbaliraam
−
| 2sg- 'you are running' || '''wexe''' ʄuufaa || 2pl- 'you all were running' || '''nunwe ƈ'''uufaa
  
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 3sg 'he is running' || '''axe''' ʄuufaa || 3pl- 'they were running' || '''awe ƈ'''uufaa
 +
| '''3''' || a falaxam || a mbalaxam || '''3''' || faliraam || mbaliraam
  +
|-
  +
| '''Infinitive''' || falaam || mbalaam
  +
|-
  +
| '''Prog. Part.''' || falaxam || mbalaxam
  +
|-
  +
| '''Imperative''' || falaam || mbalyaamo
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
−
With the auxiliary verb ''xan'' 'future', or special preverbal morph (clitic?) ''kan'' (which marks predicate focus), subject marking always occurs immediately before the verb stem:
  
   
  +
The second person singular object marker is ''-(o)ng''. The form that appears with a 1st singular subject and 2nd singular object (''-aaxong'') is idiosyncratic.
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
  +
−
|+ Subject marking with ''xan'' or ''kan'':
 
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
  +
|+ '''kick you'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 1SG || -m || 1PL || i-[mut]
 +
| '''1''' || falaaxong || i mbalaang || '''1''' || falirong || i mbalirang
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 2SG || o- || 2PL || nu-[mut]
 +
| '''2''' || — || — || '''2''' || — || —
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 3SG || a- || 3PL || a-[mut]
 +
| '''3''' || a falaang || a mbalaang || '''3''' || falirang || mbalirang
  +
|-
  +
| '''Infinitive''' || falong || mbalong
  +
|-
  +
| '''Prog. Part.''' || falang || mbalang
  +
|-
  +
| '''Imperative''' || — || —
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
−
For example, ''ʄuuf'', 'run':
  
   
  +
The third person singular object marker is ''-(i)n''. Note the allomorphs of the imperative suffixes that occur when alongside this object marker.
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
  +
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ '''kick him'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
  +
|-
  +
| '''1''' || falaanum || i mbalaan || '''1''' || falinum || i mbaliran
  +
|-
  +
| '''2''' || falaano || nu mbalaan || '''2''' || falino || nu mbaliran
  +
|-
  +
| '''3''' || a falaan || a mbalaan || '''3''' || faliran || mbaliran
  +
|-
  +
| '''Infinitive''' || falin || mbalin
  +
|-
  +
| '''Prog. Part.''' || falan || mbalan
  +
|-
  +
| '''Imperative''' || faleen || (mbalyeeno)
  +
|-
  +
|}
  +
  +
  +
===Free Object Pronouns===
  +
  +
Free pronouns exist in addition to the incorporated object pronouns (object markers) discussed above.
  +
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ Free object pronouns:
 
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| 1SG || mi' || 1PL || 'in(o)
−
| 1sg- 'I will see him' || xa'''m''' ~ xa'''n''' ga' in || 1pl- 'we will see him' || xan'''i''' '''ng''''a' in
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| 2SG || wo' || 2PL || nuun
−
| 2sg- 'you will see him' || xan'''o''' ga' in || 2pl- 'you all will see him' || xan '''nu''' '''ng'''a' in
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| 3SG || ten || 3PL || den(o)
−
| 3sg 'he will see her' || xan'''a''' ga' in || 3pl- 'they will see him' || xan '''a''' '''ng'''a' in
  
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
  +
These free pronouns can be used in either object or subject position. When used as a subject, they do '''not''' take the place of the subject agreement clitic or suffix, as these are truly agreement markers. When used as an object, these free pronouns '''do''' take the place of the object markers, as the object markers are truly incorporated pronouns. Use of a free pronoun is the only way to express a plural pronominal object. For singular objects, if there is only one object, the object suffix must be used. When there are multiple singular objects, one must be represented as an object suffix and the rest must be free pronouns.
−
As seen in the paradigm, first person subject marker, ''-m'', replaces the final /n/ of ''xan'' or ''kan'', and alternates with a zero 1sg subject marker.
  
   
−
====Object marking====
 +
===Reflexives===
   
  +
Reflexivity is indicated by use of the noun ''xoox'' (sg.) ''a qoox'' (pl.) "head/self," along with the appropriate possessor (possessive adjective for a singular participant, free pronoun in genitive position for a plural participant). It is in general preceded by the animate object marking preposition ''a''.
−
Sereer object marking varies based on how the subject is marked (which in turn varies based on tense/aspect marking). When there is no pre-verbal morphology and the subject is 3S, 1P, 2P, or 3P, the 'basic' subject marking appears, which can the following objects:
  
   
  +
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
|+ '''Basic object marking: '''
  
  +
|+ Reflexive pronouns:
 
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 1SG || -(ax)am || 1PL || (a) 'in
+
| 1SG || xoox es || 1PL || a qoox 'in
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 2SG || -(o)ng || 2P || (a) nuun
+
| 2SG || xoox of || 2PL || a qoox nuun
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 3SG || -(i)n || 3P || (a) den
+
| 3SG || xoox um || 3PL || a qoox den
 
|-
  
|-
−
|}<br/>
 +
|}
   
  +
===Position of object pronouns===
−
The singular objects are syntactically clitics, but phonologically suffixes. That is, they display morphophonological interactions with subject-marking suffixes, but do not always occur in the same place relative to the verb.
 
−
Plural object markers are clitics as well, but are less bound than singular object markers. Plural object pronouns never interact phonologically with subject suffixes. Likewise, they are always preceded by the object marker '''a''', and other words can intervene between them and the verb. For example:
  
   
  +
In complex clauses, such as those involving the verb ''bug'' "want" or ''ɓaat'' "do again," the object pronoun, whether incorporated (object marker), or free, can appear on (after) either the higher or lower verb. The former configuration (on/after the higher verb) is generally preferred, despite the fact that the object is truly that of the lower verb.
−
<gl fontsize=11>
  
  +
−
anafana a Jegaan a den
  
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
−
\gll a= naf-an-a a Jegaan a den
  
  +
bugaam o warong
−
3sg.sbj= hit-ben-fv obj Jegaan obj 3pl
  
  +
\gll bug-aa-m o war-ong
−
\trans He hits them for Jegan (130)
  
  +
want-DV-1s INF kill-2s.obj
  +
\trans I want to kill you.
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
−
This is evidence that the plural object series is not bound as the singular object series is. However, there is strong evidence that both singular and plural object markers are syntactic clitics. First, pronominal object markers are in complementary distribution with full noun phrases. In subordinate clauses, object marker can appear attached to either the verb that is thematically associated with or the matrix clause verb:
  
  +
bugaaxong o war
  +
\gll bug-aaxong o war
  +
want-DV.1s.sub+2s.obj INF kill
  +
\trans I want to kill you.
  +
</gl>
   
−
<gl fontsize=11>
 +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
ɓaataa (o) foon a 'in
−
bugaam owarong
 
−
\gll bug-aam o-war-ong
+
\gll ɓaat-a-o o foon a 'in
  +
add-DV-2s INF kiss OBJ 1p
−
want-1sg.sbj infin-kill-2sg.obj
  
−
\trans I want to kill you. (155)
 +
\trans You kiss us again.
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
−
<gl fontsize=11>
 +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
ɓaataa (a) 'in o foon
−
bugaxong owar
  
−
\gll bug-a-xong o-war
 +
\gll ɓaat-a-o (a) 'in o foon
  +
add-DV-2s obj 1pl INF kiss
−
want-fv-1sg>2sg infin-kill
  
−
\trans I want to kill you. (155)
 +
\trans You kiss us again.
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
  +
This pattern of "object shift" is also attested with the verbs ''faañ'' 'refuse', ''weec'' 'forget', and ''waag'' 'know how to, be able to'. Examples are shown below:
−
In (2), the object suffix appears on '''war''' 'kill', but in (3) it attaches to '''bug''' 'want'. This can also occur with the plural series:
  
   
−
<gl fontsize=11>
 +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
a waaga o ñaamin
−
buga (o)foon a in
  
−
\gll bug-a o-foon a in
+
\gll a waag-a o ñaam-in
  +
3 know.how-DV INF eat-3s.obj
−
want-2sg.sbj infin-kiss obj 1pl
  
−
\trans You want to kiss us. (155)
 +
\trans He knows how to eat it.
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
−
<gl fontsize=11>
 +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
a waagaan o ñaam
−
buga (a) in owar
  
−
\gll bug-a (a) in o-foon
 +
\gll a waag-aa-n o ñaam
  +
3 know.how-DV-3s.obj INF eat
−
want-2sg.sbj obj 1pl infin-kiss
  
−
\trans You want to kiss us. (155)
 +
\trans He knows how to eat it.
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
−
This clitic climbing cannot occur with a lexical object: *'''buga (a) Jegan ofoon''' 'You want to kiss Jegan'. Thus, we should conclude that both series are clitics that attach to their hosts in different ways. Plural object pronouns are less bound than singular object pronouns, which do not phonologically behave as clitics. This points to varying levels of grammaticalization and synchronic development between the two series of object markers.
 
  +
a weeca (o) foonong
  +
\gll a weec-a o foon-ong
  +
3 forget-DV INF kiss-2s.obj
  +
\trans He forgot to kiss you.
  +
</gl>
   
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
−
=====Object pronoun allomorphy=====
  
  +
a weecaang o foon
−
Basic object marking is altered when the subject is 1sg or 2sg. This is because these subjects are marked as post-verbal suffixes, and so these suffixes interact with the the singular object suffixes:
  
  +
\gll a weec-aa-ng o foon
  +
3 forget-DV-2s.obj INF kiss
  +
\trans He forgot to kiss you.
  +
</gl>
   
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
  +
a faaña o waraam
−
|+ '''Objects of a 1sg subject: '''
  
  +
\gll a faañ-a o war-aam
−
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
  +
3 refuse-DV INF kill-1s.obj
  +
\trans He refused to kill me
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
a faañaxam o waraam
  +
\gll a faañ-a-xam o war
  +
3 refuse-DV-1s.obj INF kill
  +
\trans He refused to kill me
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
When two of these verbs are present followed by another verb, it is possible for the object pronoun to shift to any of them:
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
a buga (o) waag o ñaamin
  +
\gll a bug-a o waag o ñaam-in
  +
3 want-DV INF know.how INF eat-3s.obj
  +
\trans He wants to know how to eat it.
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
a buga (o) waagin o ñaam
  +
\gll a bug-a o waag-in o ñaam
  +
3 want-DV INF know.how-3s.obj INF eat
  +
\trans He wants to know how to eat it.
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
a bugaan o waag o ñaam
  +
\gll a bug-aa-n o waag o ñaam
  +
3 want-DV-3s.obj INF know.how INF eat
  +
\trans He wants to know how to eat it.
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
==Focus extraction marking==
  +
  +
In cases of [[Extraction or Focus|focus extraction]], different forms of the verb appear. These are marked by the suffix ''-u'', which has a zero allomorph when preceding a vowel-initial suffix. This suffix ''-u'' takes the place of the default vowel ''-a''. In addition to subject marking, these extraction forms of the verb can include negative marking and object marking. In cases of subject extraction, the verb shows no agreement affixes (though it does exhibit the proper mutation for number agreement). The rows marked with "S" in the paradigms below indicate these subject-extraction forms. When some other element is extracted, the verb does exhibit subject agreement. Note that non-finite forms cannot take extraction morphology.
  +
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ '''kick (w/ extraction)'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 1SG>2SG || -xong || 1SG>2P || (a) nuun
+
| '''1''' || falum || i mbalu || '''1''' || faleerum || i mbaleeru
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 1SG>3SG || -num || 1SG>3P || (a) den
+
| '''2''' || falo || nu mbalu || '''2''' || faleero || nu mbaleeru
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| '''3''' || a falu || a mbalu || '''3''' || a faleeru || a mbaleeru
−
|}<br/>
  
  +
|-
  +
| '''S''' || falu || mbalu || '''S''' || faleeru || mbaleeru
  +
|-
  +
|}
   
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
In ''-xong'', the -x- is analyzable as a 1sg marker, and -ong as marking for 2sg. Likewise, in ''-num'', -n could mark for 3sg, and -um could mark 1sg.
 
  +
|+ '''kick me (w/ extraction)'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
  +
|-
  +
| '''1''' || — || — || '''1''' || — || —
  +
|-
  +
| '''2''' || falaxamo || nu mbalaxam || '''2''' || faleeraxamo || nu mbaleeraxam
  +
|-
  +
| '''3''' || a falaxam || a mbalaxam || '''3''' || a faleeraxam || a mbaleeraxam
  +
|-
  +
| '''S''' || falaxam || mbalaxam || '''S''' || faleeraxam || mbaleeraxam
  +
|-
  +
|}
   
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
The 2sg subject::object paradigm has similarly analyzable parts:
  
  +
|+ '''kick you (w/ extraction)'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
  +
|-
  +
| '''1''' || falong || i mbalong || '''1''' || faleerong || i mbaleerong
  +
|-
  +
| '''2''' || — || — || '''2''' || — || —
  +
|-
  +
| '''3''' || a falong || a mbalong || '''3''' || a faleerong || a mbaleerong
  +
|-
  +
| '''S''' || falong || mbalong || '''S''' || faleerong || mbalelerong
  +
|-
  +
|}
   
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
 +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
|+ '''Objects of a 2sg subject: '''
 +
|+ '''kick him (w/ extraction)'''
−
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
+
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 2SG>1SG || -xamo || 2SG>1PL || (a) 'in
+
| '''1''' || falanum || i mbalun || '''1''' || faleeranum || i mbaleerun
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 2SG>3SG || -no' || 2SG>3P || (a) den
+
| '''2''' || falano || nu mbalun || '''2''' || faleerano || nu mbaleerun
  +
|-
  +
| '''3''' || a falun || a mbalun || '''3''' || a faleerun || a mbaleerun
  +
|-
  +
| '''S''' || falun || mbalun || '''S''' || faleerun || mbaleerun
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
  +
==Passive==
−
The -xam- in ''-xamo'' marks for 1sg, and -o is a 2sg marker; -n in ''-no''' marks for 3sg, and -o' marks for 2sg. For all of these markers, except -xong, 1sg>2sg, the object marking comes inside the subject marking. This is the opposite order than what is normally expected.
  
   
  +
The passive forms of the verb are formed with the suffix ''-(e)e''. The passive infinitive if marked by the suffix ''-el'', and the passive progressive participle by ''-eel''. Object markers cannot appear on passive forms of the verb. Any object that is present must be expressed as a free pronoun or NP. Negative forms of passive verbs take the suffix ''-aand'', which co-occurs with the passive suffix only in first and second singular forms. When the suffix ''-aand'' appears word finally, it generally appears as the allomorph ''-aan'', though ''-aand'' is marginally acceptable word-finally.
−
====Reflexivity====
  
−
Reflexive verbs are always marked by xoox-, which is synchronically or diachronically derived from the word xoox- ‘head’. When it acts as a reflexive pronoun, xoox- displays no consonant alternations between singular and plural forms (which is not the case for the normal noun), and is always marked for person with the regular nominal possessive markers:
  
   
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
 +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
|+ '''Reflexive pronouns: '''
 +
|+ '''kick'''
−
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
+
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| '''1''' || faleem || i mbale || '''1''' || falaandeem || i mbalaan(d)
−
|1SG || xooxes || 1P || xoox'in
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| '''2''' || falee || nu mbale || '''2''' || falaandee || nu mbalaan(d)
−
| 2SG || xooxof || 2P || xooxnun
  
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 3SG || xooxum || 3P || xooxden
 +
| '''3''' || a fale || a mbale || '''3''' || falaan(d) || mbalaan(d)
  +
|-
  +
| '''Infinitive''' || falel || mbalel
  +
|-
  +
| '''Prog. Part.''' || faleel || mbaleel
  +
|-
  +
| '''Imperative''' || — || —
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
  +
There are no imperative passive forms. To express an imperative passive meaning, [[#The auxiliaries xan, fat, and bar|the auxiliary ''fat'']] must be used.
−
==Tense and aspect==
  
−
===Tense===
  
−
Matrix verbs are obligatorily marked for either tense or aspect in Sereer, and are often marked for both. The three tense markers are suffixes:
  
   
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
  +
fat o nafel
−
|+ Typical subject marking:
 
  +
\gll fat o= naf-el
−
! Gloss !! Sereer !!
 
  +
OBLIG 2s hit-PASS.INF
  +
\trans Get hit! ("You must be hit")
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
Passive forms can appear in cases of focus extraction, but exhibit no distinct marking compared to the non-extraction forms.
  +
  +
(non-extracted)
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
nafteem no mbind ne
  +
\gll naf-t-ee-m no mbind n-e
  +
hit-APPL-PASS-1s in house DET-DEF
  +
\trans I was hit in the house.
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
  +
(extracted)
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
no mbind ne nafteem
  +
\gll no mbind n-e naf-t-ee-m
  +
in house DET-DEF hit-APPL-PASS-1s
  +
\trans In the house I was hit.
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
  +
Even the absence of the third person proclitic ''a='' is shared by both non-extraction and (non-subject) extraction forms of negative passive verbs, whereas in all active paradigms, the negative extraction form has ''a='' in contrast to the negative non-extraction form.
  +
  +
Active negative focus construction, ungrammatical without ''a=''
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
no mbind ne a falteeru 'in
  +
\gll no mbind n-e a= fal-t-eer-u 'in
  +
in house DET-DEF 3 kick-APPL-NEG-FOC us
  +
\trans In the house he didn't kick us
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
Passive negative focus construction, ungrammatical with ''a=''
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
no mbind ne falaand
  +
\gll no mbind n-e fal-aand
  +
in house DET-DEF kick-PASS.NEG(.FOC)
  +
\trans In the house he wasn't kicked
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
==Relative marking==
  +
  +
[[Relative Clauses]] include relativized forms of the verb, marked with the suffix ''-(ii)(n)a''. This suffix combines with subject and object markers very idiosyncratically. These relative forms appear in two principle contexts: relative clauses, and following ''y-'' words (e.g. ''ye'', ''ya'', ''yaaga'') "when/while." In a subject-headed relative clause (e.g. 'the man that kicked'), no subject agreement is present. These forms are given in the tables below in the rows marked "S".
  +
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ '''that (__) kick(s)'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| '''1''' || faluuma || i mbalna || '''1''' || faleeruuma || i mbaleerna
−
| Simple past || -'a
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| '''2''' || faloona || nu mbalna || '''2''' || faleeroona || nu mbaleerna
−
| Proximal || -aa
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| '''3''' || te falna || de mbalna || '''3''' || te faleerna || de mbaleerna
−
| Progressive past || -eega
  
  +
|-
  +
| '''S''' || falna || mbalna || '''S''' || faleerna || mbaleerna
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
−
The proximal tense marks events that happened temporally close to the speech act, which includes the present or recent past. Events outside of the recent past-present time frame cannot be marked with ''-aa''.
 
   
  +
Relative verb forms including object markers are given below:
−
The future aspect when marked with ''xan'', however, can take ''-aa'' marking to indicate future progressive. ''xan'' can also appear by itself without any suffix aspect marking, and is glossed as the simple future. Note: Another pre-verbal morph, ''kan'', behaves similarly to ''xan'' with regards to subject marking and position relative to the verb, but whose semantic applications are quite different. So far, the best gloss of ''kan'' is as a marker of predicate focus.
 
   
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
The proclitic progressive aspect marker ''xe''/''we'' must co-occur with either proximal tense or progressive past tense. With proximal tense ''-aa'', ''xe''/''we'' is glossed as present progressive, and is past progressive with ''-eega''. ''xe''/''we'' has special person marking; see the section on subject marking above.
  
  +
|+ '''that/when (__) kick(s) me'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
  +
|-
  +
| '''1''' || — || — || '''1''' || — || —
  +
|-
  +
| '''2''' || falaxoona || nu mbalaxama || '''2''' || (faleeraxoona) || (nu mbaleeraxama)
  +
|-
  +
| '''3''' || te falaxama || de mbalaxama || '''3''' || (te faleeraxama) || (de mbaleeraxama)
  +
|-
  +
| '''S''' || falaxama || mbalaxama || '''S''' || faleeraxama || mbaleeraxama
  +
|-
  +
|}
   
−
====Proximal Tense====
  
   
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
Sample proximal tense verbal paradigm:
  
  +
|+ '''that/when (__) kick(s) you'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
  +
|-
  +
| '''1''' || in faloonga || i mbaloonga || '''1''' || (in faleeroonga) || (i mbaleeroonga)
  +
|-
  +
| '''2''' || — || — || '''2''' || — || —
  +
|-
  +
| '''3''' || te faloonga || de mbaloonga || '''3''' || (te faleeroonga) || (de mbaleeroonga)
  +
|-
  +
| '''S''' || faloonga || mbaloonga || '''S''' || faleeroonga || mbaleeroonga
  +
|-
  +
|}
   
  +
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
|+ Proximal tense:
 
  +
|+ '''that/when (__) kick(s) him'''
−
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
  +
|-
  +
| '''1''' || falanuuma || i mbaluuna || '''1''' || (faleeranuuma) || (i mbaleeruuna)
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| '''2''' || falanoona || nu mbaluuna || '''2''' || (faleeranoona) || (nu mbaleeruuna)
−
| 1sg- 'I run' || ʄuuf'''aam''' || 1pl- 'we run' || '''iƈ'''uuf'''aa'''
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| '''3''' || te faluuna || de mbaluuna || '''3''' || (te faleeruuna) || (de mbaleeruuna)
−
| 2sg- 'you run' || ʄuuf'''aa'''' || 2pl- 'you all run' || '''nuƈ'''uuf'''aa'''
  
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 3sg- 'he runs' || '''a'''ʄuuf'''aa''' || 3pl- 'they run' || '''aƈ'''uuf'''aa'''
 +
| '''S''' || faluuna || mbaluuna || '''S''' || faleeruuna || mbaleeruuna
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
−
====Past Tense====
  
   
  +
Passive verb forms can also be relativized.
−
Sample past tense verbal paradigm:
  
   
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
 +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ '''that/when (__) am/are/is kicked'''
−
|+ Past tense:
 
−
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
+
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 1sg- 'I ran' || ʄuuf''''aam''' || 1pl- 'we ran' || '''iƈ'''uuf''''aa'''
 +
| '''1''' || faleema || i mbaleena || '''1''' || falaandeema || i mbalaandeena
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| '''2''' || falee'oona || nu mbaleena || '''2''' || falaandeena || nu mbalaandeena
−
| 2sg- 'you ran' || ʄuuf''''aa'''' || 2pl- 'you all ran' || '''nuƈ'''uuf''''aa'''
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| '''3''' || te faleena || de mbaleena || '''3''' || te falaandeena || de mbalaandeena
−
| 3sg 'he ran' || ʄuuf''''aa''' || 3pl- 'they ran' || '''aƈ'''uuf''''aa'''
  
  +
|-
  +
| '''S''' || faleena || mbaleena || '''S''' || falaandeena || mbalaandeena
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
−
====Past Progressive Tense====
  
   
  +
The allomorph ''-iina'' of the relative suffix appears when co-occuring with the tense/aspect suffixes ''-''' (past), ''-k'' (future), and ''-eeg'' (past imperfect) ([[#Tense and aspect|see below]]).
−
Sample past progressive tense paradigm:
  
   
  +
==Conditional marking==
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
  +
−
|+ Past progressive tense:
 
  +
The suffix ''-ang'' is used to express conditionality (''o falanga'' "if you kick"). Conditional verbs take the "mixed" subject agreement pattern. These verb forms cannot appear in isolation, and require the presence of some other clause to indicate what happens if the condition is met.
−
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
  +
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ '''if (__) kick(s)'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 1sg- 'I was running' || ʄuuf'''eegam''' || 1pl- 'we were running' || '''iƈ'''uuf'''eega'''
 +
| '''1''' || falanga || i mbalanga || '''1''' || falangee || i mbalangee
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| '''2''' || o falanga || nu mbalanga || '''2''' || o falangee || nu mbalangee
−
| 2sg- 'you were running' || ʄuuf'''eega'''' || 2pl- 'you all were running' || '''nuƈ'''uuf'''eega'''
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| '''3''' || a falanga || a mbalanga || '''3''' || a falangee || a mbalangee
−
| 3sg 'he was running' || ʄuuf'''eegaa''' || 3pl- 'they were running' || '''aƈ'''uuf'''eega'''
  
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
   
  +
Conditional forms can appear with object marking:
−
===Aspect===
  
−
Two auxiliary verbs, ''xe''/''we'' 'progressive', and ''xan'' 'future', mark aspect in Sereer. The auxiliary ''xe''/''we'' takes special subject marking (see the section on Subject marking), and can occur with the proximal or past progressive tense. The auxiliary ''xan'' takes a different type of exceptional person marking, and can occur without a tense suffix or with the proximal tense suffix (for a future progressive reading).
  
   
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
====Future aspect====
  
  +
|+ '''if (__) kick(s) me'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
  +
|-
  +
| '''1''' || — || — || '''1''' || — || —
  +
|-
  +
| '''2''' || o falangaam || nu mbalangaam || '''2''' || o falangiraam || nu mbalangiraam
  +
|-
  +
| '''3''' || a falangaam || a mbalangaam || '''3''' || a falangiraam || a mbalangiraam
  +
|-
  +
|}
   
−
Sample future aspect paradigm:
  
   
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
 +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ '''if (__) kick(s) you'''
−
|+ Future aspect:
 
−
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
+
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 1sg- 'I will see him' || '''xam''' ga' in || 1pl- 'we will see him' || '''xani''' '''ng''''a' in
 +
| '''1''' || falangang || i mbalangang || '''1''' || falangirang || i mbalangirang
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 2sg- 'you will see him' || '''xano''' ga' in || 2pl- 'you all will see him' || '''xan nu''' '''ng'''a' in
 +
| '''2''' || — || — || '''2''' || — || —
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 3sg 'he will see her' || '''xana''' ga' in || 3pl- 'they will see him' || '''xan a''' '''ng'''a' in
 +
| '''3''' || a falangang || a mbalangang || '''3''' || a falangirang || a mbalangirang
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
−
====Progressive aspect====
  
   
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
Sample progressive aspect paradigm:
  
  +
|+ '''if (__) kick(s) him'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
  +
|-
  +
| '''1''' || falangan || i mbalangan || '''1''' || falangiran || i mbalangiran
  +
|-
  +
| '''2''' || o falangan || nu mbalangan || '''2''' || o falangiran || nu mbalangiran
  +
|-
  +
| '''3''' || a falangan || a mbalangan || '''3''' || a falangiran || a mbalangiran
  +
|-
  +
|}
   
  +
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
  +
And in the passive:
−
|+ Progressive aspect:
 
  +
−
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
 
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ '''if (__) am/are/is kicked'''
  +
! Positive !! sg. !! pl. !! Negative !! sg. !! pl.
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 1sg- 'I am running' || '''mexe''' ʄuuf'''aa''' || 1pl- 'we were running' || '''inwe ƈ'''uuf'''aa'''
 +
| '''1''' || falangee || i mbalangee || '''1''' || falangaan(d) || i mbalangaan(d)
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 2sg- 'you are running' || '''wexe''' ʄuuf'''aa''' || 2pl- 'you all were running' || '''nunwe ƈ'''uuf'''aa'''
 +
| '''2''' || o falangee || nu mbalangee || '''2''' || o falangaan(d) || nu mbalangaan(d)
 
|-
  
|-
−
| 3sg 'he is running' || '''axe''' ʄuuf'''aa''' || 3pl- 'they were running' || '''awe ƈ'''uuf'''aa'''
 +
| '''3''' || a falangee || a mbalangee || '''3''' || a falangaan(d) || a mbalangaan(d)
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
|}
   
−
===TAM Combinations===
  
−
The suffixal tenses and pre-verbal auxiliary aspects can be combined in the following ways:
  
   
  +
Note that without negation, the conditional passive paradigm is homophonous with the conditional active negative paradigm.
−
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  
  +
−
|+ TAM combinations:
 
  +
==Tense and aspect==
−
! Pre-verbal !! Root !! Post-verbal !! Gloss
 
  +
  +
All examples given thus far have been in a "default" tense and aspect, marked by the suffix -a. The suffix -a is often interpreted as a present tense, perfective aspect, but when occurring with other tense and aspect auxiliaries and/or suffixes, these readings may be overwritten.
  +
  +
There are three tense/aspect suffixes which attach directly after the stem. All of the finite forms listed above can take these tense/aspect suffixes, as can the infinitive. The progressive participle cannot take these suffixes.
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ Tense/aspect suffixes:
  +
! Gloss !! Sereer !!
 
|-
  
|-
−
| || _ || -aa || proximal
 +
| Past || -'
 
|-
  
|-
−
| ||_ || -'a || past
 +
| Future || -k
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| Past imperfect || -eeg
−
| || _|| -eega || progressive past
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| Past conditional || -k-eeg
−
|''xe''/''we'' ||_ || -aa || present progressive
  
  +
|}
  +
  +
The future suffix ''-k'' is transparently related to the itive extension ''-ik''. However, the two suffixes are distinct. It is possible for them to co-occur. ''-''' cannot co-occur with either ''-k'' or ''-eeg''.
  +
  +
The past conditional suffix ''-k-eeg'' ("would have __") is composed of the future and past imperfect suffixes, but as its meaning is very much non-compositional given the meaning of these two suffixes, it would be possible to analyze ''-keeg'' as a single suffix.
  +
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
ret'angee maaga, xonkeegaam
  +
\gll ret-'-ang-ee m-aaga xon-keeg-aa-m
  +
go-PST-if-NEG there die-PST.COND-DV-1s
  +
\trans If I hadn't gone there, I would have died.
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
The precise semantics of these tense/aspect affixes is discussed in [[Tense and Aspect]]. The first person singular forms of ''fal'' "kick" are given below with each of these tense/aspect suffixes:
  +
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ Basic subject marking:
  +
! Gloss !! Sereer !!
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| I kicked || fal'aam
−
| ''xe''/''we'' ||_ || -eega || progressive past
  
 
|-
  
|-
−
| xan ||_ || || future
 +
| I will kick || falkaam
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| I was kicking || faleegaam
−
| xan || _ || -aa || future progressive
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
| I would have kicked || falkeegaam
−
|}
 
  +
|-
  +
|}
   
  +
When appearing on an infinitive verb form, the final tense/aspect suffix exhibits an allomorph with an extra vowel: ''-'u'', ''-ik'', ''-eegu''. The ''u'' present in these allomorphs is not to be confused with the extraction marker ''-u''.
−
===Examples of TAM combinations===
  
−
The following are examples of each attested TAM combination in Sereer thus far:
  
   
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
'''Present progressive''':
  
  +
|+ Infinitive forms with tense/aspect marking:
−
<gl fontsize=11>
  
  +
! Gloss !! Sereer !!
−
mexe laca
  
  +
|-
−
\gll me-xe lac-aa
  
  +
| to have kicked || fal'u
−
1s-PRG ask-PROX
  
  +
|-
−
\trans I’m asking (065)
  
  +
| to go kick || falik
  +
|-
  +
| to have been kicking || faleegu
  +
|-
  +
| to have gone to kick || fal'ik
  +
|-
  +
|}
  +
  +
==Complex Constructions==
  +
  +
In addition to the "tenses" described above, there are a number of complex TAM (tense, aspect, mood) constructions formed by the use of various auxiliaries, generally consisting of an auxiliary followed by a non-finite verb form.
  +
  +
===The copula ''-xe''===
  +
  +
The copula <i>-xe</i> is inflected irregularly for subject agreement, and can take no other inflection. Unlike the agreement proclitics for main verbs, the agreement markers on ''-xe'' are synchronically best analyzed as prefixes, as they form a single stress-domain with their base, from which proclitics are excluded. Compare ''in= fí''' "I (str.) do" with ''ín-we'' "we are". In this second example, there is regular penultimate stress on the prefix, but in the first, penultimate stress is impossible, as the proclitic is excluded from the domain of stress assignment. For the second singular, the forms <i>wexe</i> and <i>woxe</i> are in free variation, though <i>wexe</i> seems to occur much more frequently.
  +
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
  +
|+ The copula ''-xe'':
  +
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
  +
|-
  +
| 1SG || me-xe || 1PL || in-we
  +
|-
  +
| 2SG || we-xe / wo-xe|| 2PL || nun-we
  +
|-
  +
| 3SG || a-xe || 3PL || a-we
  +
|-
  +
|}
  +
  +
  +
These forms are historically derived from the combination of a free pronoun and a relative operator (thus historically, *''in we mbal-aa'' "we who (are) kicking"). A vestige of this origin is the fact that the copula has a rarely encountered alternate form <i>xa/wa</i> (e.g. in the phrase <i>awa maa</i> "they are fine"). There do not exist any other forms of the copula based on other forms of the relative pronoun (-<i>aaga</i>, -<i>eek</i>, etc.).
  +
  +
This copular verb can appear in a construction whereby a lexical verb form directly follows it. Most commonly, it is followed by a progressive participle, as shown in <glr id="eat.prog"/>.
  +
  +
<gl id="eat.prog"fontsize=12>
  +
mexe ñaamaa maalo
  +
\gll me= xe ñaam -aa
  +
1s= COP eat -PROG
  +
\trans I am eating. (101)
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
   
  +
However, it is also possible for finite verbs to occur in this position as seen in <glr id="eat.finite"/>, as well as with bare roots in clause-linking constructions, shown in <glr id="eat.bare"/>. These constructions cannot contain negation, because <i>xe</i> is a positive polarity auxiliary.
−
'''Proximal''':
  
  +
−
<gl fontsize=11>
  
  +
<gl id="eat.finite"fontsize=12>
−
ŋasaam
  
  +
wil es axe ɓalga xaye
−
\gll ŋas-aa-m
 
  +
\gll wil es a= xe ɓalig -a xaye
−
play-PROX-1S
  
  +
hair 3POSS 3= COP be.black -DV today
−
\trans I play (096)
  
  +
\trans My hair is black today. (269)
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
  +
<gl id="eat.bare"fontsize=12>
  +
axe moof
  +
\gll a= xe moof
  +
3= COP be.seated
  +
\trans He is seated. (310a)
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
  +
Furthermore, this finite main verbs can be in the past progressive suffix, as shown in <glr id="eat.pst.prog"/>. No other tense/aspect affixes, the past tense -' or the future tense -<i>ik</i> can appear on a verb in this construction. It is likely that the acceptability of <i>xe</i> with the past progressive is because of its aspectual content, in spite of its tense marking.
   
  +
<gl id="eat.pst.prog"fontsize=12>
−
'''Future progressive''':
  
  +
axe jaweega
−
<gl fontsize=11>
  
−
\gll xan nafaa aJegaan
 +
\gll a= xe jaw -eeg -a
  +
3= COP cook -P.IMP -DV
−
xan naf-aa a-Jegaan
 
  +
\trans He was cooking. (140)
−
FUT hit-PROX OBJ-Jegan
  
−
\trans I will be hitting Jegan repeatedly (108)
  
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
  +
Most constructions that contain <i>xe</i> are translated as semantically equivalent to their unmarked counterparts. However, complex constructions have shown that ………
   
  +
===The auxiliaries ''xan'', ''fat'', and ''bar''===
   
  +
The auxiliaries ''xan'' (future), ''fat'' (obligation), and ''bar'' (prohibition) occur with any non-finite verb form. These constructions make use of "mixed" subject agreement marking pattern.
−
'''Future''':
  
  +
−
<gl fontsize=11>
  
  +
====xan====
−
\gll xan naf aJegaan
 
  +
−
xan naf a-Jegaan
 
  +
The auxiliary ''xan'' is used to indicate future tense. The semantic distinctions between ''xan'' and the tense/aspect suffix ''-k'' are discussed in [[Tense and Aspect]].
−
FUT hit OBJ-Jegan
  
  +
−
\trans I will hit Jegan (once) (108)
  
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
xan o moof
  +
\gll xan o= moof
  +
FUT 2s sit
  +
\trans You will sit.
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
xan nu ngimaa
  +
\gll xan nu= ngim-aa
  +
FUT 2p sing.pl-PROG
  +
\trans You all will be singing.
  +
</gl>
   
  +
There exists an optional variant ''xam'' when agreeing with a first person singular subject, though this is dispreferred to ''xan''.
   
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
−
'''Past''':
  
  +
xam/xan ga'in
−
<gl fontsize=11>
  
−
\gll sob 'am
 +
\gll xam/xan ga'-in
  +
FUT see-3s.obj
−
sob ’a-m
 
  +
\trans I'll see him.
−
be.clumsy PST-1s
  
−
\trans I was clumsy (068)
  
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
  +
====fat====
   
  +
The auxiliary ''fat'' is used to express obligation.
−
'''Progressive past (1)''':
  
  +
−
<gl fontsize=11>
  
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
−
\gll feceegam
  
  +
fat o ret
−
fec-eega-m
 
  +
\gll fat o= ret
−
dance-PRG.PST-1s
  
  +
OBLIG 2s go
−
\trans I used to dance (133)
  
  +
\trans You have to go.
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
  +
fat i njaw-aa
  +
\gll fat i= njaw
  +
OBLIG 1p cook.pl
  +
\trans We have to be cooking.
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
====bar====
  +
  +
The auxiliary ''bar'' is used to express prohibition. It can occur with any subject, but is most commonly found with second person subjects.
   
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
−
'''Progressive past (2)''':
  
  +
bar o nafan
−
<gl fontsize=11>
  
−
\gll mexe fooleega
 +
\gll bar o= naf-a-n
  +
PROHIB 2s hit-PROG-3s.obj
−
me-xe fool-eega
 
  +
\trans Don't be hitting him!
−
1s-prg. jump-pst.prg
  
−
\trans I was jumping (repeatedly) (108)
  
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
−
===ka-===
  
  +
bar i ndet
  +
\gll bar i= ndet
  +
PROHIB 1p go.pl
  +
\trans Let's not go.
  +
</gl>
   
  +
With a second singular subject, an optional abbreviated form exists in which the final ''r'' of the auxiliary and the clitic ''o'' is omitted.
−
Sereer allows a proclitic ka- to appear with tense and aspect morphology. The exact semantics of ka- are yet to be determined. Ka- often occurs with the progressive aspect -aa. However, it is not inherently linked to the progressive semantics like as the auxiliary "xe/we" is when combined with the proximal "-aa" suffix. Similarly, though, ka- also takes special subject marking (See section on Subject Marking).
 
   
  +
<gl fontsize=12>
−
'''Progressive KA- reading''':
  
  +
ba lool
−
<gl fontsize=11>
  
−
\gll kam labaa
 +
\gll ba lool
  +
OBLIG.2s cry
−
ka-m lab-aa
 
  +
\trans Don't cry!
−
KA-1S drown-PROX
  
−
\trans I'm drowning (166)
  
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
  +
===The auxiliary ''kaa''===
−
'''Non-progressive KA- reading''':
  
  +
−
<gl fontsize=11>
  
  +
The auxiliary ''kaa'' (glossed VFM, see [[Extraction_or_Focus#Verum_focus_with_kaa.3D | '''kaa''']]) is used in combination with any non-finite verb form along with the strong agreement pattern. A sample paradigm with a bare infinitive is given below:
−
\gll kam lab
  
  +
−
ka-m lab
 
  +
:{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4" style="border: 1px solid black;"
−
KA-1S drown
  
  +
|+ ''Kaa'' focus construction:
−
\trans I (already) drowned (166)
  
  +
! Gloss !! Sereer !! Gloss !! Sereer
  +
|-
  +
| I did kick || kaam fal || We did kick || kaa i mbal
  +
|-
  +
| You (sg.) did kick || kaa (o) fal || You (pl.) did kick || kaa nu mbal
  +
|-
  +
| He did kick || kaa te fal || They did kick || kaa de mbal
  +
|-
  +
|}
  +
  +
This construction expresses verum focus. For more information regarding the semantics of this construction, see [[Extraction or Focus]].
  +
  +
<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12>
  +
kaa te garaa
  +
\gll kaa te gar-aa
  +
VFM 3s come-PROG
  +
\trans He is coming.
 
</gl>
  
</gl>
   
  +
The first person singular form, ''kaam'' is slightly idiosyncratic, but can be though of as a contraction of ''kaa m'', the expected form.
−
However, this progressive/non-progressive reading distinction only occurs with atelic verbs. The exact function of ka- is yet to be determined. This morpheme could also have focus/extraction function (See note in Focus section)
  
   
  +
<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12>
−
==Stem-initial consonant mutation==
  
  +
kaam doxin'u a Samba oxeɗ
  +
\gll kaa=m doxin-'u a Samba o-xed
  +
VFM=1s lend-PST OBJ Samba ring
  +
\trans I did give Samba a ring.
  +
</gl>
   
  +
===The auxiliary ''naa''===
−
See [[Phonological Alternations#Stem-initial consonant mutation|Phonological Alternations]].
  
  +
  +
The auxiliary ''naa'' (glossed FIN) is used in conjunction with a progressive participle in environments of extraction. Essentially, its sole purpose is to contribute finiteness, so that the non-finite progressive participle may appear in these situations.
  +
  +
It is used in any position in which a relative form of a verb can appear.
  +
  +
<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12>
  +
okoor oxe naa nafang
  +
\gll o-koor ox-e naa naf-a-ng
  +
man DET-DEF FIN hit-PROG-2s.obj
  +
\trans The man who is hitting you
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12>
  +
ke naa jangneel a refa...
  +
\gll k-e naa jangn-eel a ref-a
  +
THING-DEF FIN teach-PASS.PROG 3 be-DV
  +
\trans What is being taught is...
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
Use of this construction is the only way to express a progressive meaning in a relative clause. Thus, the above two examples can be thought of as progressive versions of the following two examples:
  +
  +
<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12>
  +
okoor oxe nafoonga
  +
\gll o-koor ox-e naf-oong-a
  +
man DET-DEF hit-2s.obj-REL
  +
\trans The man who hit you
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12>
  +
ke jangneena a refa...
  +
\gll k-e jangn-ee-na a ref-a
  +
THING-DEF teach-PASS-REL 3 be-DV
  +
\trans What is taught is...
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
  +
It appears also in cases of focus extraction:
  +
  +
<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12>
  +
wo' fo mi' naa ñaamaa
  +
\wo' fo mi' naa ñaam-aa
  +
you and I FIN eat-PROG
  +
\trans It's you and I who are eating.
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
  +
Including questions:
  +
  +
<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12>
  +
'an naa ñaamaa
  +
\gll 'an naa ñaam-aa
  +
who FIN eat-PROG
  +
\trans Who is eating?
  +
</gl>
  +
  +
==Verb Paradigm==
  +
  +
Full paradigms for the verb ''fal'' "kick" are given below in the perfect tense. The extraction forms given are for non-subject extraction— the subject extraction forms are simply the third person forms without the proclitic ''a=''. The relativized third person forms are those used in object relativization ("the man '''that he kicked'''")— the subject relativization forms ("the man '''that kicked'''") simply lack the proclitic ''te= / de=''.
  +
  +
  +
:{| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #000" cellpadding="4"
  +
|+ '''"Kick", perfect tense, no object '''
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<center></center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''1st singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''2nd singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''3rd singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''1st plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''2nd plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''3rd plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''default'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falaam
  +
  +
|
  +
fala
  +
  +
|
  +
a fala
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbala
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbala
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbala
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''extracted'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falum
  +
  +
|
  +
falo
  +
  +
|
  +
a falu
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalu
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalu
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalu
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''conditional'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falanga
  +
  +
|
  +
o falanga
  +
  +
|
  +
a falanga
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalanga
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalanga
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalanga
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''relative'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
faluuma
  +
  +
|
  +
faloona
  +
  +
|
  +
te falna
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalna
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalna
  +
  +
|
  +
de mbalna
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''default neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
faliim
  +
  +
|
  +
faliro
  +
  +
|
  +
falee(r)
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalee(r)
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalee(r)
  +
  +
|
  +
mbalee(r)
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''extracted neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
faleerum
  +
  +
|
  +
faleero
  +
  +
|
  +
a faleeru
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbaleeru
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbaleeru
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbaleeru
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''conditional neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falangee
  +
  +
|
  +
o falangee
  +
  +
|
  +
a falangee
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalangee
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalangee
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalangee
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''relative neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
faleeruuma
  +
  +
|
  +
faleeroona
  +
  +
|
  +
te faleerna
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbaleerna
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbaleerna
  +
  +
|
  +
de mbaleerna
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''infinitive'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>fal</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>mbal</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''prog. part.'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>falaa</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>mbalaa</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''imperative'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>fali</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>falyo</center>
  +
  +
|}
  +
  +
  +
:{| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #000" cellpadding="4"
  +
|+ '''"Kick me", perfect tense'''
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<center></center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''1st singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''2nd singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''3rd singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''1st plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''2nd plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''3rd plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''default'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
falaxamo
  +
  +
|
  +
a falaxam
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalaxam
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalaxam
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''extracted'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
falaxamo
  +
  +
|
  +
a falaxam
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalaxam
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalaxam
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''conditional'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
o falangaam
  +
  +
|
  +
a falangaam
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalangaam
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalangaam
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''relative'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
falaxoona
  +
  +
|
  +
te falaxama
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalaxama
  +
  +
|
  +
de mbalaxama
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''default neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
faliraamo
  +
  +
|
  +
faliraam
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbaliraam
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbaliraam
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''extracted neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
faleeraxamo
  +
  +
|
  +
a faleeraxam
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbaleeraxam
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbaleeraxam
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''conditional neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
o falangiraam
  +
  +
|
  +
a falangiraam
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalangiraam
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalangiraam
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''relative neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
(faleeraxoona)
  +
  +
|
  +
te faleeraxama
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbaleeraxama
  +
  +
|
  +
de mbaleeraxama
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''infinitive'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>falaam</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>mbalaam</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''prog. part.'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>falaxam</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>mbalaxam</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''imperative'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>falaam</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>mbalyaamo</center>
  +
  +
|}
  +
  +
  +
:{| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #000" cellpadding="4"
  +
|+ '''"Kick you", perfect tense'''
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<center></center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''1st singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''2nd singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''3rd singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''1st plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''2nd plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''3rd plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''default'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falaaxong
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
a falaang
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalaang
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalaang
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''extracted'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falong
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
a falong
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalong
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalong
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''conditional'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falangang
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
a falangang
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalangang
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalangang
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''relative'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
in faloonga
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
te faloonga
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbaloonga
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
de mbaloonga
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''default neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falirong
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
falirang
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalirang
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
mbalirang
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''extracted neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
faleerong
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
a faleerong
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbaleerong
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbaleerong
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''conditional neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falangirang
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
a falangirang
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalangirang
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalangirang
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''relative neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
in faleeroonga
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
te faleeroonga
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbaleeroonga
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
de mbaleeroonga
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''infinitive'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>falong</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>mbalong</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''prog. part.'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>falang</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>mbalang</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''imperative'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|}
  +
  +
  +
:{| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #000" cellpadding="4"
  +
|+ '''"Kick him", perfect tense'''
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<center></center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''1st singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''2nd singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''3rd singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''1st plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''2nd plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''3rd plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''default'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falaanum
  +
  +
|
  +
falaano
  +
  +
|
  +
a falaan
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalaan
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalaan
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalaan
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''extracted'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falanum
  +
  +
|
  +
falano
  +
  +
|
  +
a falun
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalun
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalun
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalun
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''conditional'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falangan
  +
  +
|
  +
o falangan
  +
  +
|
  +
a falangan
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalangan
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalangan
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalangan
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''relative'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falanuuma
  +
  +
|
  +
falanoona
  +
  +
|
  +
te faluuna
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbaluuna
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbaluuna
  +
  +
|
  +
de mbaluuna
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''default neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falinum
  +
  +
|
  +
falino
  +
  +
|
  +
faliran
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbaliran
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbaliran
  +
  +
|
  +
mbaliran
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''extracted neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
faleeranum
  +
  +
|
  +
faleerano
  +
  +
|
  +
a faleerun
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbaleerun
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbaleerun
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbaleerun
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''conditional neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falangiran
  +
  +
|
  +
o falangiran
  +
  +
|
  +
a falangiran
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalangiran
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalangiran
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalangiran
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''relative neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
(faleeranuuma)
  +
  +
|
  +
(faleeranoona)
  +
  +
|
  +
te faleeruuna
  +
  +
|
  +
(i mbaleeruuna)
  +
  +
|
  +
(nu mbaleeruuna)
  +
  +
|
  +
de mbaleeruuna
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''infinitive'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>falin</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>mbalin</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''prog. part.'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>falan</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>mbalan</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''imperative'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>faleen</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>(mbalyeeno)</center>
  +
  +
|}
  +
  +
  +
:{| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #000" cellpadding="4"
  +
|+ '''"Be kicked", perfect tense'''
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<center></center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''1st singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''2nd singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''3rd singular'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''1st plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''2nd plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|
  +
<center>'''3rd plural'''</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''default'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
faleem
  +
  +
|
  +
falee
  +
  +
|
  +
a fale
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbale
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbale
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbale
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''extracted'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
faleem
  +
  +
|
  +
falee
  +
  +
|
  +
a fale
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbale
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbale
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbale
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''conditional'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falangee
  +
  +
|
  +
o falangee
  +
  +
|
  +
a falangee
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalangee
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalangee
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalangee
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''relative'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
faleema
  +
  +
|
  +
falee'oona
  +
  +
|
  +
te faleena
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbaleena
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbaleena
  +
  +
|
  +
de mbaleena
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''default neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falaandeem
  +
  +
|
  +
falaandee
  +
  +
|
  +
falaan(d)
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalaan(d)
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalaan(d)
  +
  +
|
  +
mbalaan(d)
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''extracted neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falaandeem
  +
  +
|
  +
falaandee
  +
  +
|
  +
falaan(d)
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalaan(d)
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalaan(d)
  +
  +
|
  +
falaan(d)
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''conditional neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falangaan(d)
  +
  +
|
  +
o falangaan(d)
  +
  +
|
  +
a falangaan(d)
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalangaan(d)
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalangaan(d)
  +
  +
|
  +
a mbalangaan(d)
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''relative neg.'''</div>
  +
  +
|
  +
falaandeema
  +
  +
|
  +
falaandeena
  +
  +
|
  +
te falaandeena
  +
  +
|
  +
i mbalaandeena
  +
  +
|
  +
nu mbalaandeena
  +
  +
|
  +
de mbalaandeena
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''infinitive'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>falel</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>mbalel</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''prog. part.'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>faleel</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>mbaleel</center>
  +
  +
|-
  +
|
  +
<div align="right">'''imperative'''</div>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
| colspan="3" |
  +
<center>—</center>
  +
  +
|}

Latest revision as of 20:54, 21 April 2014

Verbs in Sereer are inflected for person and number agreement, negation, tense and aspect, and a number of other categories. Inflectional morphemes are strictly ordered as follows:

Auxiliary

Subject clitic

ROOT

Extensions

Tense

Past imperfect

Conditional "if"

Negation

Finiteness

Object

Subject

Relativization

-xe
xan, fat, bar
kaa
naa

(i)n, (u)m, i
o, nu
a, te, de

many

-', -k

-eeg

-ang

-ee(r), -ir, -(i)i

-a
-u
-e, -el, -eel
-aa

-aam/-xam
-(o)ng
-(i)n

-(u)m
-(o)

-(ii)(n)a


#Verb Paradigm

Subject Marking

Sereer verbs agree in person and number with their subject. The language exhibits three subject agreement patterns, the use of which depends on morphological factors discussed below. In addition to these suffixes and clitics, number agreement is indicated by initial consonant mutation, with unmutated verb forms agreeing with singular subjects, and nasal grade verb forms agreeing with plural subjects.

Basic marking

Basic subject marking:
Gloss Sereer Gloss Sereer
1SG -(u)m 1PL i=
2SG -(o) 2PL nu=
3SG a= 3PL a=

The vowels of the 1st and 2nd singular subject suffixes are assimilated to a preceding vowel (specifically the 'default vowel' -a and the passive -e), yielding a long vowel.

Strong marking

The set of "strong" subject markers is used in contexts such as subordinate clauses, relative clauses, and switch-referent situations.

"Strong" subject marking:
Gloss Sereer Gloss Sereer
1SG in/=n, (u)m 1PL i=
2SG o= 2PL nu=
3SG te= 3PL de=

The third person strong clitics te= and de= can optionally co-occur with the basic third person clitic a=, though this configuration surfaces relatively infrequently.

<gl fontsize=12> bugaam te (a) ñaam \gll bug-aa-m te= a= ñaam want-DV-1s 3s 3s eat \trans I want him to eat. </gl>

The two first person singular strong clitics are semantically equivalent, and used in free variation. The free allomorph m of um is notable for being the only syllabic nasal in the language.

<gl fontsize=12> a buga (u)m ret \gll a bug-a (u)m ret 3 want-DV 1s go \trans He wants me to go. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> (u)m yer? \gll (u)m yer 1s drink \trans Can I drink? </gl>

The allomorph =n of in is not syllabic, and is enclitic on an immediately preceding vowel-final word.

<gl fontsize=12> a bugan ret \gll a bug-a=n ret 3 want-DV=1s go \trans He wants me to go. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> in ret a bugu \gll in ret a bug-u 1s go 3 want-FOC \trans He wants me to go. </gl>

Mixed marking

A third pattern of subject agreement is used with the conditional -ang, as well as constructions with the auxiliaries xan, fat, and bar. This third pattern is termed "mixed" as it makes use of agreement clitics taken from both of the other two agreement patterns. Note the absence of any overt marker for the first person singular.

Mixed subject marking:
Gloss Sereer Gloss Sereer
1SG Ø 1PL i=
2SG o= 2PL nu=
3SG a= 3PL a=

Negation

Negation is expressed by verbal suffixes of the form -ee(r), -i(r), -ii. These allomorphs are not strictly phonologically conditioned. The negative suffix appears closer to the root than subject or object marking suffixes. The negative marker co-occurring with the singular subject agreement morphemes are given below. The third person agreement proclitic a= does not appear with negative verbs, unless the verb is also inflected for extraction or conditionality (see below). In all cases, the plural forms of negative-marked verbs differ from the third person singular only in the agreement proclitic (for 1st and 2nd pl.), and initial consonant mutation.

Negative marking:
Gloss Sereer
1SG -ii-m
2SG -ir-o
3SG -ee(r)

Finiteness

Verb forms are either finite or non-finite. A verb form is finite if it contains one of four morphemes: the "default vowel" -a, the extraction marker -u, the passive suffix -e, or the negative suffix -eer (or any of their allomorphs). The "default vowel" (glossed DV) appears in a variety of finite verb forms, and caries no consistent semantic information other than finiteness. It has an allomorph -aa when immediately preceding a vowel-intial suffix (specifically -um "1s subject", -o "2s subject -in "3s object", and ong "2s object"), due to the assimilation of these vowels to the preceding -a.

Non-finite forms

There are two types of non-finite verb forms; infinitives and progressive participles. The infinitive is the bare verb stem. The progressive participle is formed by affixing the suffix -aa (glossed PROG) to the stem, though when co-occuring with an object marker, the allomorph -a appears. Though object, passive, tense, and aspect suffixes can appear on the both types of non-finite verbs, subject agreement suffixes cannot, nor can they inflect for negation. Subject agreement proclitics (both basic and strong) can occur on non-finite forms, for example in subordinate clauses. Non-finite forms always exhibit initial consonant mutation to agree with their subject, if one exists. Non-finite verb forms can serve as the subject or object of clauses. They are often preceded by the non-finite particle o (glossed INF), though not obligatorily.

<gl fontsize=12> a mbar-a (o) maafir \gll a mbar-a o maaf-ir 3 must.pl-DV INF fall-RECIP \trans They had to wrestle </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> bugaam o jawaa maalo \gll bug-aa-m o jaw-aa maalo want-DV-1s INF cook-PROG rice \trans I want to be cooking rice OR I like cooking rice </gl>

Non-finite forms with strong agreement

Non-finite verb forms can appear with the strong agreement clitics...

Non-finite forms with mixed agreement

Non-finite forms are used with the mixed agreement pattern to indicate...

Imperative

Imperative forms exist for second person adressees only. The singular imperative is formed with the suffix -i, and the plural imperative with the suffixes -y-o. Note that object markers intervene between the suffixes -y and -o.

Imperative marking:
Gloss Sereer
2SG -i
2PL -y-o

The forms discussed so far are given below for the verb fal "kick."

kick
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 falaam i mbala 1 faliim i mbalee(r)
2 falaa nu mbala 2 faliro nu mbalee(r)
3 a fala a mbala 3 falee(r) mbalee(r)
Infinitive fal mbal
Prog. Part. falaa mbalaa
Imperative fali mbalyo

Object Marking

Incorporated object pronouns ("object markers") exist as suffixes for singular objects. These suffixes directly precede the subject suffix, if one present.

The first person singular object marker is -aam after a consonant and -xam after a vowel.

kick me
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 — — 1 — —
2 falaxamo nu mbalaxam 2 faliraamo nu mbaliraam
3 a falaxam a mbalaxam 3 faliraam mbaliraam
Infinitive falaam mbalaam
Prog. Part. falaxam mbalaxam
Imperative falaam mbalyaamo


The second person singular object marker is -(o)ng. The form that appears with a 1st singular subject and 2nd singular object (-aaxong) is idiosyncratic.

kick you
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 falaaxong i mbalaang 1 falirong i mbalirang
2 — — 2 — —
3 a falaang a mbalaang 3 falirang mbalirang
Infinitive falong mbalong
Prog. Part. falang mbalang
Imperative — —


The third person singular object marker is -(i)n. Note the allomorphs of the imperative suffixes that occur when alongside this object marker.

kick him
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 falaanum i mbalaan 1 falinum i mbaliran
2 falaano nu mbalaan 2 falino nu mbaliran
3 a falaan a mbalaan 3 faliran mbaliran
Infinitive falin mbalin
Prog. Part. falan mbalan
Imperative faleen (mbalyeeno)


Free Object Pronouns

Free pronouns exist in addition to the incorporated object pronouns (object markers) discussed above.

Free object pronouns:
Gloss Sereer Gloss Sereer
1SG mi' 1PL 'in(o)
2SG wo' 2PL nuun
3SG ten 3PL den(o)

These free pronouns can be used in either object or subject position. When used as a subject, they do not take the place of the subject agreement clitic or suffix, as these are truly agreement markers. When used as an object, these free pronouns do take the place of the object markers, as the object markers are truly incorporated pronouns. Use of a free pronoun is the only way to express a plural pronominal object. For singular objects, if there is only one object, the object suffix must be used. When there are multiple singular objects, one must be represented as an object suffix and the rest must be free pronouns.

Reflexives

Reflexivity is indicated by use of the noun xoox (sg.) a qoox (pl.) "head/self," along with the appropriate possessor (possessive adjective for a singular participant, free pronoun in genitive position for a plural participant). It is in general preceded by the animate object marking preposition a.


Reflexive pronouns:
Gloss Sereer Gloss Sereer
1SG xoox es 1PL a qoox 'in
2SG xoox of 2PL a qoox nuun
3SG xoox um 3PL a qoox den

Position of object pronouns

In complex clauses, such as those involving the verb bug "want" or ɓaat "do again," the object pronoun, whether incorporated (object marker), or free, can appear on (after) either the higher or lower verb. The former configuration (on/after the higher verb) is generally preferred, despite the fact that the object is truly that of the lower verb.

<gl fontsize=12> bugaam o warong \gll bug-aa-m o war-ong want-DV-1s INF kill-2s.obj \trans I want to kill you. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> bugaaxong o war \gll bug-aaxong o war want-DV.1s.sub+2s.obj INF kill \trans I want to kill you. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> ɓaataa (o) foon a 'in \gll ɓaat-a-o o foon a 'in add-DV-2s INF kiss OBJ 1p \trans You kiss us again. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> ɓaataa (a) 'in o foon \gll ɓaat-a-o (a) 'in o foon add-DV-2s obj 1pl INF kiss \trans You kiss us again. </gl>

This pattern of "object shift" is also attested with the verbs faañ 'refuse', weec 'forget', and waag 'know how to, be able to'. Examples are shown below:

<gl fontsize=12> a waaga o ñaamin \gll a waag-a o ñaam-in 3 know.how-DV INF eat-3s.obj \trans He knows how to eat it. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a waagaan o ñaam \gll a waag-aa-n o ñaam 3 know.how-DV-3s.obj INF eat \trans He knows how to eat it. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a weeca (o) foonong \gll a weec-a o foon-ong 3 forget-DV INF kiss-2s.obj \trans He forgot to kiss you. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a weecaang o foon \gll a weec-aa-ng o foon 3 forget-DV-2s.obj INF kiss \trans He forgot to kiss you. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a faaña o waraam \gll a faañ-a o war-aam 3 refuse-DV INF kill-1s.obj \trans He refused to kill me </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a faañaxam o waraam \gll a faañ-a-xam o war 3 refuse-DV-1s.obj INF kill \trans He refused to kill me </gl>

When two of these verbs are present followed by another verb, it is possible for the object pronoun to shift to any of them:

<gl fontsize=12> a buga (o) waag o ñaamin \gll a bug-a o waag o ñaam-in 3 want-DV INF know.how INF eat-3s.obj \trans He wants to know how to eat it. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a buga (o) waagin o ñaam \gll a bug-a o waag-in o ñaam 3 want-DV INF know.how-3s.obj INF eat \trans He wants to know how to eat it. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> a bugaan o waag o ñaam \gll a bug-aa-n o waag o ñaam 3 want-DV-3s.obj INF know.how INF eat \trans He wants to know how to eat it. </gl>

Focus extraction marking

In cases of focus extraction, different forms of the verb appear. These are marked by the suffix -u, which has a zero allomorph when preceding a vowel-initial suffix. This suffix -u takes the place of the default vowel -a. In addition to subject marking, these extraction forms of the verb can include negative marking and object marking. In cases of subject extraction, the verb shows no agreement affixes (though it does exhibit the proper mutation for number agreement). The rows marked with "S" in the paradigms below indicate these subject-extraction forms. When some other element is extracted, the verb does exhibit subject agreement. Note that non-finite forms cannot take extraction morphology.

kick (w/ extraction)
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 falum i mbalu 1 faleerum i mbaleeru
2 falo nu mbalu 2 faleero nu mbaleeru
3 a falu a mbalu 3 a faleeru a mbaleeru
S falu mbalu S faleeru mbaleeru
kick me (w/ extraction)
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 — — 1 — —
2 falaxamo nu mbalaxam 2 faleeraxamo nu mbaleeraxam
3 a falaxam a mbalaxam 3 a faleeraxam a mbaleeraxam
S falaxam mbalaxam S faleeraxam mbaleeraxam
kick you (w/ extraction)
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 falong i mbalong 1 faleerong i mbaleerong
2 — — 2 — —
3 a falong a mbalong 3 a faleerong a mbaleerong
S falong mbalong S faleerong mbalelerong
kick him (w/ extraction)
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 falanum i mbalun 1 faleeranum i mbaleerun
2 falano nu mbalun 2 faleerano nu mbaleerun
3 a falun a mbalun 3 a faleerun a mbaleerun
S falun mbalun S faleerun mbaleerun

Passive

The passive forms of the verb are formed with the suffix -(e)e. The passive infinitive if marked by the suffix -el, and the passive progressive participle by -eel. Object markers cannot appear on passive forms of the verb. Any object that is present must be expressed as a free pronoun or NP. Negative forms of passive verbs take the suffix -aand, which co-occurs with the passive suffix only in first and second singular forms. When the suffix -aand appears word finally, it generally appears as the allomorph -aan, though -aand is marginally acceptable word-finally.

kick
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 faleem i mbale 1 falaandeem i mbalaan(d)
2 falee nu mbale 2 falaandee nu mbalaan(d)
3 a fale a mbale 3 falaan(d) mbalaan(d)
Infinitive falel mbalel
Prog. Part. faleel mbaleel
Imperative — —

There are no imperative passive forms. To express an imperative passive meaning, the auxiliary fat must be used.

<gl fontsize=12> fat o nafel \gll fat o= naf-el OBLIG 2s hit-PASS.INF \trans Get hit! ("You must be hit") </gl>

Passive forms can appear in cases of focus extraction, but exhibit no distinct marking compared to the non-extraction forms.

(non-extracted)

<gl fontsize=12> nafteem no mbind ne \gll naf-t-ee-m no mbind n-e hit-APPL-PASS-1s in house DET-DEF \trans I was hit in the house. </gl>


(extracted)

<gl fontsize=12> no mbind ne nafteem \gll no mbind n-e naf-t-ee-m in house DET-DEF hit-APPL-PASS-1s \trans In the house I was hit. </gl>


Even the absence of the third person proclitic a= is shared by both non-extraction and (non-subject) extraction forms of negative passive verbs, whereas in all active paradigms, the negative extraction form has a= in contrast to the negative non-extraction form.

Active negative focus construction, ungrammatical without a=

<gl fontsize=12> no mbind ne a falteeru 'in \gll no mbind n-e a= fal-t-eer-u 'in in house DET-DEF 3 kick-APPL-NEG-FOC us \trans In the house he didn't kick us </gl>

Passive negative focus construction, ungrammatical with a=

<gl fontsize=12> no mbind ne falaand \gll no mbind n-e fal-aand in house DET-DEF kick-PASS.NEG(.FOC) \trans In the house he wasn't kicked </gl>

Relative marking

Relative Clauses include relativized forms of the verb, marked with the suffix -(ii)(n)a. This suffix combines with subject and object markers very idiosyncratically. These relative forms appear in two principle contexts: relative clauses, and following y- words (e.g. ye, ya, yaaga) "when/while." In a subject-headed relative clause (e.g. 'the man that kicked'), no subject agreement is present. These forms are given in the tables below in the rows marked "S".

that (__) kick(s)
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 faluuma i mbalna 1 faleeruuma i mbaleerna
2 faloona nu mbalna 2 faleeroona nu mbaleerna
3 te falna de mbalna 3 te faleerna de mbaleerna
S falna mbalna S faleerna mbaleerna


Relative verb forms including object markers are given below:

that/when (__) kick(s) me
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 — — 1 — —
2 falaxoona nu mbalaxama 2 (faleeraxoona) (nu mbaleeraxama)
3 te falaxama de mbalaxama 3 (te faleeraxama) (de mbaleeraxama)
S falaxama mbalaxama S faleeraxama mbaleeraxama


that/when (__) kick(s) you
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 in faloonga i mbaloonga 1 (in faleeroonga) (i mbaleeroonga)
2 — — 2 — —
3 te faloonga de mbaloonga 3 (te faleeroonga) (de mbaleeroonga)
S faloonga mbaloonga S faleeroonga mbaleeroonga


that/when (__) kick(s) him
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 falanuuma i mbaluuna 1 (faleeranuuma) (i mbaleeruuna)
2 falanoona nu mbaluuna 2 (faleeranoona) (nu mbaleeruuna)
3 te faluuna de mbaluuna 3 (te faleeruuna) (de mbaleeruuna)
S faluuna mbaluuna S faleeruuna mbaleeruuna


Passive verb forms can also be relativized.

that/when (__) am/are/is kicked
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 faleema i mbaleena 1 falaandeema i mbalaandeena
2 falee'oona nu mbaleena 2 falaandeena nu mbalaandeena
3 te faleena de mbaleena 3 te falaandeena de mbalaandeena
S faleena mbaleena S falaandeena mbalaandeena


The allomorph -iina of the relative suffix appears when co-occuring with the tense/aspect suffixes -' (past), -k (future), and -eeg (past imperfect) (see below).

Conditional marking

The suffix -ang is used to express conditionality (o falanga "if you kick"). Conditional verbs take the "mixed" subject agreement pattern. These verb forms cannot appear in isolation, and require the presence of some other clause to indicate what happens if the condition is met.

if (__) kick(s)
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 falanga i mbalanga 1 falangee i mbalangee
2 o falanga nu mbalanga 2 o falangee nu mbalangee
3 a falanga a mbalanga 3 a falangee a mbalangee


Conditional forms can appear with object marking:

if (__) kick(s) me
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 — — 1 — —
2 o falangaam nu mbalangaam 2 o falangiraam nu mbalangiraam
3 a falangaam a mbalangaam 3 a falangiraam a mbalangiraam


if (__) kick(s) you
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 falangang i mbalangang 1 falangirang i mbalangirang
2 — — 2 — —
3 a falangang a mbalangang 3 a falangirang a mbalangirang


if (__) kick(s) him
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 falangan i mbalangan 1 falangiran i mbalangiran
2 o falangan nu mbalangan 2 o falangiran nu mbalangiran
3 a falangan a mbalangan 3 a falangiran a mbalangiran


And in the passive:

if (__) am/are/is kicked
Positive sg. pl. Negative sg. pl.
1 falangee i mbalangee 1 falangaan(d) i mbalangaan(d)
2 o falangee nu mbalangee 2 o falangaan(d) nu mbalangaan(d)
3 a falangee a mbalangee 3 a falangaan(d) a mbalangaan(d)


Note that without negation, the conditional passive paradigm is homophonous with the conditional active negative paradigm.

Tense and aspect

All examples given thus far have been in a "default" tense and aspect, marked by the suffix -a. The suffix -a is often interpreted as a present tense, perfective aspect, but when occurring with other tense and aspect auxiliaries and/or suffixes, these readings may be overwritten.

There are three tense/aspect suffixes which attach directly after the stem. All of the finite forms listed above can take these tense/aspect suffixes, as can the infinitive. The progressive participle cannot take these suffixes.

Tense/aspect suffixes:
Gloss Sereer
Past -'
Future -k
Past imperfect -eeg
Past conditional -k-eeg

The future suffix -k is transparently related to the itive extension -ik. However, the two suffixes are distinct. It is possible for them to co-occur. -' cannot co-occur with either -k or -eeg.

The past conditional suffix -k-eeg ("would have __") is composed of the future and past imperfect suffixes, but as its meaning is very much non-compositional given the meaning of these two suffixes, it would be possible to analyze -keeg as a single suffix.

<gl fontsize=12> ret'angee maaga, xonkeegaam \gll ret-'-ang-ee m-aaga xon-keeg-aa-m go-PST-if-NEG there die-PST.COND-DV-1s \trans If I hadn't gone there, I would have died. </gl>

The precise semantics of these tense/aspect affixes is discussed in Tense and Aspect. The first person singular forms of fal "kick" are given below with each of these tense/aspect suffixes:

Basic subject marking:
Gloss Sereer
I kicked fal'aam
I will kick falkaam
I was kicking faleegaam
I would have kicked falkeegaam

When appearing on an infinitive verb form, the final tense/aspect suffix exhibits an allomorph with an extra vowel: -'u, -ik, -eegu. The u present in these allomorphs is not to be confused with the extraction marker -u.

Infinitive forms with tense/aspect marking:
Gloss Sereer
to have kicked fal'u
to go kick falik
to have been kicking faleegu
to have gone to kick fal'ik

Complex Constructions

In addition to the "tenses" described above, there are a number of complex TAM (tense, aspect, mood) constructions formed by the use of various auxiliaries, generally consisting of an auxiliary followed by a non-finite verb form.

The copula -xe

The copula -xe is inflected irregularly for subject agreement, and can take no other inflection. Unlike the agreement proclitics for main verbs, the agreement markers on -xe are synchronically best analyzed as prefixes, as they form a single stress-domain with their base, from which proclitics are excluded. Compare in= fí' "I (str.) do" with ín-we "we are". In this second example, there is regular penultimate stress on the prefix, but in the first, penultimate stress is impossible, as the proclitic is excluded from the domain of stress assignment. For the second singular, the forms wexe and woxe are in free variation, though wexe seems to occur much more frequently.

The copula -xe:
Gloss Sereer Gloss Sereer
1SG me-xe 1PL in-we
2SG we-xe / wo-xe 2PL nun-we
3SG a-xe 3PL a-we


These forms are historically derived from the combination of a free pronoun and a relative operator (thus historically, *in we mbal-aa "we who (are) kicking"). A vestige of this origin is the fact that the copula has a rarely encountered alternate form xa/wa (e.g. in the phrase awa maa "they are fine"). There do not exist any other forms of the copula based on other forms of the relative pronoun (-aaga, -eek, etc.).

This copular verb can appear in a construction whereby a lexical verb form directly follows it. Most commonly, it is followed by a progressive participle, as shown in <glr id="eat.prog"/>.

<gl id="eat.prog"fontsize=12> mexe ñaamaa maalo \gll me= xe ñaam -aa 1s= COP eat -PROG \trans I am eating. (101) </gl>


However, it is also possible for finite verbs to occur in this position as seen in <glr id="eat.finite"/>, as well as with bare roots in clause-linking constructions, shown in <glr id="eat.bare"/>. These constructions cannot contain negation, because xe is a positive polarity auxiliary.

<gl id="eat.finite"fontsize=12> wil es axe ɓalga xaye \gll wil es a= xe ɓalig -a xaye hair 3POSS 3= COP be.black -DV today \trans My hair is black today. (269) </gl>

<gl id="eat.bare"fontsize=12> axe moof \gll a= xe moof 3= COP be.seated \trans He is seated. (310a) </gl>


Furthermore, this finite main verbs can be in the past progressive suffix, as shown in <glr id="eat.pst.prog"/>. No other tense/aspect affixes, the past tense -' or the future tense -ik can appear on a verb in this construction. It is likely that the acceptability of xe with the past progressive is because of its aspectual content, in spite of its tense marking.

<gl id="eat.pst.prog"fontsize=12> axe jaweega \gll a= xe jaw -eeg -a 3= COP cook -P.IMP -DV \trans He was cooking. (140) </gl>

Most constructions that contain xe are translated as semantically equivalent to their unmarked counterparts. However, complex constructions have shown that ………

The auxiliaries xan, fat, and bar

The auxiliaries xan (future), fat (obligation), and bar (prohibition) occur with any non-finite verb form. These constructions make use of "mixed" subject agreement marking pattern.

xan

The auxiliary xan is used to indicate future tense. The semantic distinctions between xan and the tense/aspect suffix -k are discussed in Tense and Aspect.

<gl fontsize=12> xan o moof \gll xan o= moof FUT 2s sit \trans You will sit. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> xan nu ngimaa \gll xan nu= ngim-aa FUT 2p sing.pl-PROG \trans You all will be singing. </gl>

There exists an optional variant xam when agreeing with a first person singular subject, though this is dispreferred to xan.

<gl fontsize=12> xam/xan ga'in \gll xam/xan ga'-in FUT see-3s.obj \trans I'll see him. </gl>

fat

The auxiliary fat is used to express obligation.

<gl fontsize=12> fat o ret \gll fat o= ret OBLIG 2s go \trans You have to go. </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> fat i njaw-aa \gll fat i= njaw OBLIG 1p cook.pl \trans We have to be cooking. </gl>

bar

The auxiliary bar is used to express prohibition. It can occur with any subject, but is most commonly found with second person subjects.

<gl fontsize=12> bar o nafan \gll bar o= naf-a-n PROHIB 2s hit-PROG-3s.obj \trans Don't be hitting him! </gl>

<gl fontsize=12> bar i ndet \gll bar i= ndet PROHIB 1p go.pl \trans Let's not go. </gl>

With a second singular subject, an optional abbreviated form exists in which the final r of the auxiliary and the clitic o is omitted.

<gl fontsize=12> ba lool \gll ba lool OBLIG.2s cry \trans Don't cry! </gl>

The auxiliary kaa

The auxiliary kaa (glossed VFM, see kaa) is used in combination with any non-finite verb form along with the strong agreement pattern. A sample paradigm with a bare infinitive is given below:

Kaa focus construction:
Gloss Sereer Gloss Sereer
I did kick kaam fal We did kick kaa i mbal
You (sg.) did kick kaa (o) fal You (pl.) did kick kaa nu mbal
He did kick kaa te fal They did kick kaa de mbal

This construction expresses verum focus. For more information regarding the semantics of this construction, see Extraction or Focus.

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> kaa te garaa \gll kaa te gar-aa VFM 3s come-PROG \trans He is coming. </gl>

The first person singular form, kaam is slightly idiosyncratic, but can be though of as a contraction of kaa m, the expected form.

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> kaam doxin'u a Samba oxeɗ \gll kaa=m doxin-'u a Samba o-xed VFM=1s lend-PST OBJ Samba ring \trans I did give Samba a ring. </gl>

The auxiliary naa

The auxiliary naa (glossed FIN) is used in conjunction with a progressive participle in environments of extraction. Essentially, its sole purpose is to contribute finiteness, so that the non-finite progressive participle may appear in these situations.

It is used in any position in which a relative form of a verb can appear.

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> okoor oxe naa nafang \gll o-koor ox-e naa naf-a-ng man DET-DEF FIN hit-PROG-2s.obj \trans The man who is hitting you </gl>

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> ke naa jangneel a refa... \gll k-e naa jangn-eel a ref-a THING-DEF FIN teach-PASS.PROG 3 be-DV \trans What is being taught is... </gl>

Use of this construction is the only way to express a progressive meaning in a relative clause. Thus, the above two examples can be thought of as progressive versions of the following two examples:

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> okoor oxe nafoonga \gll o-koor ox-e naf-oong-a man DET-DEF hit-2s.obj-REL \trans The man who hit you </gl>

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> ke jangneena a refa... \gll k-e jangn-ee-na a ref-a THING-DEF teach-PASS-REL 3 be-DV \trans What is taught is... </gl>


It appears also in cases of focus extraction:

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> wo' fo mi' naa ñaamaa \wo' fo mi' naa ñaam-aa you and I FIN eat-PROG \trans It's you and I who are eating. </gl>


Including questions:

<gl id="ex1" fontsize=12> 'an naa ñaamaa \gll 'an naa ñaam-aa who FIN eat-PROG \trans Who is eating? </gl>

Verb Paradigm

Full paradigms for the verb fal "kick" are given below in the perfect tense. The extraction forms given are for non-subject extraction— the subject extraction forms are simply the third person forms without the proclitic a=. The relativized third person forms are those used in object relativization ("the man that he kicked")— the subject relativization forms ("the man that kicked") simply lack the proclitic te= / de=.


"Kick", perfect tense, no object
1st singular
2nd singular
3rd singular
1st plural
2nd plural
3rd plural
default

falaam

fala

a fala

i mbala

nu mbala

a mbala

extracted

falum

falo

a falu

i mbalu

nu mbalu

a mbalu

conditional

falanga

o falanga

a falanga

i mbalanga

nu mbalanga

a mbalanga

relative

faluuma

faloona

te falna

i mbalna

nu mbalna

de mbalna

default neg.

faliim

faliro

falee(r)

i mbalee(r)

nu mbalee(r)

mbalee(r)

extracted neg.

faleerum

faleero

a faleeru

i mbaleeru

nu mbaleeru

a mbaleeru

conditional neg.

falangee

o falangee

a falangee

i mbalangee

nu mbalangee

a mbalangee

relative neg.

faleeruuma

faleeroona

te faleerna

i mbaleerna

nu mbaleerna

de mbaleerna

infinitive
fal
mbal
prog. part.
falaa
mbalaa
imperative
fali
falyo


"Kick me", perfect tense
1st singular
2nd singular
3rd singular
1st plural
2nd plural
3rd plural
default
—

falaxamo

a falaxam

—

nu mbalaxam

a mbalaxam

extracted
—

falaxamo

a falaxam

—

nu mbalaxam

a mbalaxam

conditional
—

o falangaam

a falangaam

—

nu mbalangaam

a mbalangaam

relative
—

falaxoona

te falaxama

—

nu mbalaxama

de mbalaxama

default neg.
—

faliraamo

faliraam

—

nu mbaliraam

a mbaliraam

extracted neg.
—

faleeraxamo

a faleeraxam

—

nu mbaleeraxam

a mbaleeraxam

conditional neg.
—

o falangiraam

a falangiraam

—

nu mbalangiraam

a mbalangiraam

relative neg.
—

(faleeraxoona)

te faleeraxama

—

nu mbaleeraxama

de mbaleeraxama

infinitive
falaam
mbalaam
prog. part.
falaxam
mbalaxam
imperative
falaam
mbalyaamo


"Kick you", perfect tense
1st singular
2nd singular
3rd singular
1st plural
2nd plural
3rd plural
default

falaaxong

—

a falaang

i mbalaang

—

a mbalaang

extracted

falong

—

a falong

i mbalong

—

a mbalong

conditional

falangang

—

a falangang

i mbalangang

—

a mbalangang

relative

in faloonga

—

te faloonga

i mbaloonga

—

de mbaloonga

default neg.

falirong

—

falirang

i mbalirang

—

mbalirang

extracted neg.

faleerong

—

a faleerong

i mbaleerong

—

a mbaleerong

conditional neg.

falangirang

—

a falangirang

i mbalangirang

—

a mbalangirang

relative neg.

in faleeroonga

—

te faleeroonga

i mbaleeroonga

—

de mbaleeroonga

infinitive
falong
mbalong
prog. part.
falang
mbalang
imperative
—
—


"Kick him", perfect tense
1st singular
2nd singular
3rd singular
1st plural
2nd plural
3rd plural
default

falaanum

falaano

a falaan

i mbalaan

nu mbalaan

a mbalaan

extracted

falanum

falano

a falun

i mbalun

nu mbalun

a mbalun

conditional

falangan

o falangan

a falangan

i mbalangan

nu mbalangan

a mbalangan

relative

falanuuma

falanoona

te faluuna

i mbaluuna

nu mbaluuna

de mbaluuna

default neg.

falinum

falino

faliran

i mbaliran

nu mbaliran

mbaliran

extracted neg.

faleeranum

faleerano

a faleerun

i mbaleerun

nu mbaleerun

a mbaleerun

conditional neg.

falangiran

o falangiran

a falangiran

i mbalangiran

nu mbalangiran

a mbalangiran

relative neg.

(faleeranuuma)

(faleeranoona)

te faleeruuna

(i mbaleeruuna)

(nu mbaleeruuna)

de mbaleeruuna

infinitive
falin
mbalin
prog. part.
falan
mbalan
imperative
faleen
(mbalyeeno)


"Be kicked", perfect tense
1st singular
2nd singular
3rd singular
1st plural
2nd plural
3rd plural
default

faleem

falee

a fale

i mbale

nu mbale

a mbale

extracted

faleem

falee

a fale

i mbale

nu mbale

a mbale

conditional

falangee

o falangee

a falangee

i mbalangee

nu mbalangee

a mbalangee

relative

faleema

falee'oona

te faleena

i mbaleena

nu mbaleena

de mbaleena

default neg.

falaandeem

falaandee

falaan(d)

i mbalaan(d)

nu mbalaan(d)

mbalaan(d)

extracted neg.

falaandeem

falaandee

falaan(d)

i mbalaan(d)

nu mbalaan(d)

falaan(d)

conditional neg.

falangaan(d)

o falangaan(d)

a falangaan(d)

i mbalangaan(d)

nu mbalangaan(d)

a mbalangaan(d)

relative neg.

falaandeema

falaandeena

te falaandeena

i mbalaandeena

nu mbalaandeena

de mbalaandeena

infinitive
falel
mbalel
prog. part.
faleel
mbaleel
imperative
—
—
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